Randell Mills: Hydrinos (Lower-Energy Hydrogen), US Patent # 6,024,935, etc.

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Randell MILLS
Hydrinos

Dow Jones News Wire (October 6, 1999)
Randell Mills: US Patent # 6,024,935 ~ Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods & Structures
R. Mills WO Patent # 92/10838 ~ Energy/Matter Conversion Methods & Structures
European Patent Office List of Mills/Blacklight Patents
Discussion Group Links
Press Article Links
http://www.blacklightpower.com --- BlackLight Power Website

Dow Jones NewsWires (October 6, 1999)

"Researcher Claims Power Tech That Defies Quantum Theory"

By Erik Baard (NY) -- A researcher based in New Jersey is presenting to a gathering of chemists in Ontario, Calif., Wednesday the science that he says will underpin a multi-billion dollar energy and materials company.
The catch is that his theory - that hydrogen atoms can be shrunk in a stable form - is an impossibility in the established understanding of quantum physics. Still, Dr. Randell Mills, a Harvard University-trained medical doctor who has done postgraduate studies in physics and chemistry, isn't going it alone. His start-up, BlackLight Power Inc. of Cranbury, New Jersey, has received support and advice from utilities Conectiv (CIV) and PacifiCorp (PPW) and from Morgan Stanley Dean Witter & Co. (MWD). Other major companies are waiting in the wings, Dr. Mills claimed.
"We have stayed supportive of this in the face of fairly significant scientists saying it can't be," a senior executive with Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, who asked that he not be identified, told Dow Jones Newswires. Pending further verification and commercial commitments, Morgan Stanley Dean Witter plans to usher BlackLight Power to an initial public offering within two years, the executive said. The investment bank will be an underwriter and hasn't put its own money into the start-up, the executive said, but another source close to the situation said Morgan Stanley Dean Witter had made an overture to that end.
Dr. Mills claimed the process of transforming hydrogen atoms into smaller "hydrinos" by chemical catalysis will provide "a virtually unlimited supply of energy" through distributed power turbines. The hydrinos themselves combine with other elements, he said, to make compounds that could be the basis for batteries to power cars 1,000 miles at highway speeds before recharging; a plastic that conducts electricity and shares magnetic qualities with iron; and super-strong coatings, among other things. There could be "potentially thousands, if not millions" of novel compounds, he said. He also said that compounds such as the ones BlackLight Power is creating account for the more than 90% of the mass of the universe that scientists say is so far unobservable.
Dr. Mills hasn't made acceptance easy for himself or his sponsors by claiming he has found the holy grail of a grand unified theory of classical quantum mechanics and that the effect of his work on humanity will be "bigger than fire." Indeed, Steven Chu, a Nobel Prize-winning physicist at Stanford University, said in September "it's extremely unlikely that this is real, and I feel sorry for the funders, the people who are backing this." Dr. Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist at City College of New York cited another time-honored law that might apply to BlackLight Power investors: "There's a sucker born every minute."
The American Chemical Society forum is the first open peer review of BlackLight Power's findings, while mainstream quantum mechanics, scientists point out, has evolved from decades of tests and analysis. BlackLight Power has sent its work out for numerous tests at independent laboratories over the past several years and has seen positive results, Dr. Mills said. Conectiv is "really on the optimistic side," albeit "cautiously" so, said David Blake, Conectiv vice president and BlackLight Power board member. "It's getting more and more difficult to argue with the results Dr. Mills is presenting and the validations he is starting to accrue," Blake said. Both Dr. Mills and Conectiv's Blake say "two major corporations" are currently testing crystals provided by the labs, but they declined to name them.
"These folks are spending their time and energy, and the money it takes to pay technical people, on this. You don't do that unless you've got some
inclination that you'd better look at this," Blake said. But are Conectiv and PacifiCorp making a "Hail Mary pass" in a once stolid industry thrown
into turmoil by deregulation? "Utilities...especially on the second tier, like Conectiv and PacifiCorp, are really looking for edges because they don't have the size and scope" of mega-utilities that are forming through mergers all around them, said Robert Rubin, a utilities analyst with Bear Sterns Cos. in New York. Shareholders will forgive managers for making a few odd bets because "the payoff could be huge," Rubin said. Still, "there's a difference between investing $2.5 million and $250 million".
"Randy has had no trouble raising the funds he needs," the Morgan Stanley Dean Witter executive said.
Dr. Mills confirmed that the company had $10 million, largely from the two utilities, and equipment and property bringing its capital up to about
$30 million. BlackLight Power will present about 10 compounds to the American Chemical Society and "five papers that give explicit details and
is absolutely reproducible," Dr. Mills said. "I have a unified field theory that's absolutely testable at every stage and on every item."
"Thank God we're getting our day in court," Dr. Mills said. Also speaking at the meeting about the reported hydrogen energy release, in the form of
visible and ultra-violet light, is Dr. Johannes Conrads, who retired last week as the director of the Institute for Low Temperature Plasma Physics
at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany.
The BlackLight Power research done at the institute was funded by the company, but "my research was completely independent," said Dr. Conrads,
who has studied plasma since 1959 and has worked for NASA and taught at Princeton University. Dr. Conrads has flown to the society's meeting in
California to report that he's seen "a few astonishing things" from the hydrino process, he said. "Something from the Mills cell is releasing
energy, and remarkably high energy, that is clear," Dr. Conrads said. Equally compelling is that energy in the Mills cell decays at a rate
independent of the removal of outside electricity, and the reaction works only with BlackLight Power's catalyst, he said. But Dr. Conrads stops
short of vindicating the hydrino theory.
"None of my experiments so far is falsifying Randy's theory, but unfortunately none of my experiments is verifying it, either," Dr. Conrads said. Dr. Conrads said he's taking his time to examine Dr. Mills' theory because "this is not for sensation. I am an old professor in physics." Dr. Conrad, who emphasized his lack of credentials as a materials scientist, said he has sought Dr. Mill's permission to invite peers at DaimlerChrysler AG (DCX) to examine the hydrino crystals. Dr. Conrads parts with Dr. Mills somewhat by standing with traditional quantum mechanics as it applies to the ground state that the Mills theory claims to breach. But Dr. Conrads says he could see Dr. Mills work as a chemical approach to the new science of non-ideal plasmas. This unusual plasma is composed of charged particles at low temperatures and as densely packed as a solid, he said. Indications are that in such an environment, conventional quantum rules might not apply, he said. With more sensitive equipment, however, he expects to find stronger evidence for "fractional" hydrogen, he said.
"Everyone was telling us that heat was too nebulous," Dr. Mills said. To put his work on more solid ground, he manufactured hydrino-based crystals
in mass, he said. "The hydride ion cracked the nut, right there, that did it," he said. BlackLight Power's laboratory cabinets are stacked with vials of crystals of varied colors and forms. Other scientists have been supportive. On the BlackLight Power board sits Dr. Shelby Brewer, a nuclear engineer and physicist who is also the former chief executive of ABB Combustion Engineering and an assistant secretary in the U.S. Department of Energy from 1981 to 1984. Dr. Melvin H. Miles, an electro-chemist researching batteries at the U.S. Navy facility in China Lake, Calif., said the BlackLight crystals put Dr. Mills "way ahead of cold fusion in that he has a tangible product to show people."
"Randy Mills impressed me that he may also be brilliant. He talks off the top of his head in a way that other scientists can't. But that doesn't mean he's right. I think his results are right, but doesn't mean his theory is right," Miles said.

Randell Mills

(Photo Credit: Robin Holland)

US Patent # 6,024,935
(February 15, 2000)
Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods and Structures
by Randell Mills, et al.

European Patent Office PDF Version (The US Patent Office online HTML version does not show the formulas):
http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/bnsviewer?CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD&PN=US6024935&ID=US+++6024935A1+I+
Abstract ~
Methods and apparatus for releasing energy from hydrogen atoms (molecules) by stimulating their electrons to relax to quantized lower energy levels and smaller radii (smaller semimajor and semiminor axes) than the "ground state" by providing energy sinks or means to remove energy resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate these transitions. An energy sink, energy hole, can be provided by the transfer of at least one electron between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more donating species to one or more accepting species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron accepting species equals approximately mX27.21 eV (mX48.6 eV) for atomic (molecular) hydrogen below "ground state" transitions where m and t are integers. The present invention further comprises a hydrogen spillover catalyst, a multifunctionality material having a functionality which dissociates molecular hydrogen to provide free hydrogen atoms which spill over to a functionality which supports mobile free hydrogen atoms and a functionality which can be a source of the energy holes. The energy reactor includes one of an electrolytic cell, a pressurized hydrogen gas cell, and a hydrogen gas discharge cell. A preferred pressurized hydrogen gas energy reactor comprises a vessel; a source of hydrogen; a means to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a material to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen, and a material which can be a source of energy holes in the gas phase. The gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime, boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature of the gas energy reactor wherein the exothermic reaction of electronic transitions of hydrogen to lower energy states occurs in the gas phase.
Inventors: Mills, Randell L. (Malvern, PA); Good, William R. (Wayne, PA); Phillips, Jonathan (State College, PA); Popov; Arthur I. (Philadelphia, PA)
Assignee: Blacklight Power, Inc. (Cranbury, NJ)
Appl. No.: 822170 ~ Filed: March 21, 1997
Current U.S. Class: 423/648.1; 422/129
Intern'l Class: C01B 003/02
Field of Search: 423/648.1 422/129
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Primary Examiner: Langel; Wayne
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Melcher; Jeffrey S. Farkas & Manelli PLLC
Claims
We claim: [ 499 Claims, not included here ]
Description
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to methods and apparatus for releasing energy from hydrogen atoms (molecules) as their electrons are stimulated to relax to lower energy levels and smaller radii (smaller semimajor and semiminor axes) than the "ground state" by providing a transition catalyst which acts as an energy sink or means to remove energy resonant with the electronic energy released to stimulate these transitions according to a novel atomic model. The transition catalyst should not be consumed in the reaction. It accepts energy from hydrogen and releases the energy to the surroundings. Thus, the transition catalyst returns to the origin state. Processes that require collisions are common. For example, the exothermic chemical reaction of H+H to form H.sub.2 requires a collision with a third body, M, to remove the bond energy-H+H+M.fwdarw.H.sub.2 +M. The third body distributes the energy from the exothermic reaction, and the end result is the H.sub.2 molecule and an increase in the temperature of the system. Similarly, the transition from the n=1 state of hydrogen to the ##EQU1## states of hydrogen is possible via a resonant collision, say n=1 to n=1/2. In these cases, during the collision the electron(s) couples to another electron transition or electron transfer reaction, for example, which can absorb the exact amount of energy that must be removed from the hydrogen atom (molecule), a resonant energy sink. The end result is a lower-energy state for the hydrogen and increase in temperature of the system. Each of such reactions is hereafter referred to as a shrinkage reaction: each transition is hereafter referred to as a shrinkage transition; each energy sink or means to remove energy resonant with the hydrogen electronic energy released to effect each transition is hereafter referred to as an energy hole, and the electronic energy removed by the energy hole to effect or stimulate the shrinkage transition is hereafter referred to as the resonance shrinkage energy. An energy hole comprising a reactant ion that is spontaneously regenerated following an endothermic electron ionization reaction of energy equal to the resonance shrinkage energy is hereafter referred to as an electrocatalytic ion. An energy hole comprising two reactants that are spontaneously regenerated following the an endothermic electron transfer reaction between the two species wherein the differences in their ionization energies is equal to the resonance shrinkage energy is hereafter referred to as an electrocatalytic couple.
The present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor, pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy reactor, comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid, molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the source of energy holes; and a means for removing, the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent an exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium. The present invention further comprises methods and structures for repeating this shrinkage reaction to produce shrunken atoms (molecules) to provide new materials with novel properties such as high thermal stability.
2. Description of the Related Art
Existing atomic models and theories are unable to explain certain observed physical phenomena. The Schrodinger wavefunctions of the hydrogen atom, for example, do not explain the extreme ultraviolet emission spectrum of the interstellar medium or that of the Sun, as well as the phenomenon of anomalous heat release from hydrogen in certain electrolytic cells having a potassium carbonate electrolyte or certain gas energy cells having a hydrogen spillover catalyst comprising potassium nitrate with the production of lower-energy hydrogen atoms and molecules, which is part of the present invention. Thus, advances in energy production and materials have been largely limited to laboratory discoveries having limited or sub-optimal commercial application.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention comprises methods and apparatuses for releasing heat energy from hydrogen atoms (molecules) by stimulating their electrons to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state" via electron transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which remove energy from the hydrogen atoms (molecules) to stimulate these transitions. In addition, this application includes methods and apparatuses to enhance the power output by enhancing the reaction rate- the rate of the formation of the lower-energy hydrogen. The present invention further comprises a hydrogen spillover catalyst, a multifunctionality material having a functionality which dissociates molecular hydrogen to provide free hydrogen atoms which spill over to a functionality which supports mobile free hydrogen atoms and a functionality which can be a source of the energy holes. The energy reactor includes one of an electrolytic cell, a pressurized hydrogen gas cell, and a hydrogen gas discharge cell.
A preferred pressurized hydrogen gas energy reactor comprises a vessel; a source of hydrogen; a means to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a material to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen, and a material which can be a source of energy holes in the gas phase. The gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime, boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature of the gas energy reactor wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs in the gas phase.
The present invention further comprises methods and apparatuses for repeating a shrinkage reaction according to the present invention to cause energy release and to provide shrunken atoms and molecules with novel properties such as high thermal stability, and low reactivity. The lower-energy state atoms and molecules are useful for heat transfer, cryogenic applications, as a buoyant gas. as a medium in an engine such as a Sterling engine or a turbine, as a general replacement for helium, and as a refrigerant by absorbing energy including heat energy as the electrons are excited back to a higher energy level.
Below "Ground State" Transitions of Hydrogen Atoms ~
A novel atomic theory is disclosed in Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa. provided by HydroCatalysis Power Corporation, Great Valley Corporate Center, 41 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern, Pa. 19355; The Unification of Spacetime, the Forces, Matter, and Energy, Mills, R., Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., (1992); The Grand Unified Theory, Mills, R. and Farrell, J., Science Press, Ephrata, Pa., (1990); Mills, R., Kneizys, S., Fusion Technology, 210, (1991), pp. 65-81; Mills, R., Good, W., Shaubach, R., "Dihydrino Molecule Identification", Fusion Technology, 25, 103 (1994); Mills, R., Good, W., "Fractional Quantum Energy Levels of Hydrogen", Fusion Technology, Vol. 28. No. 4, November, (1995), pp. 1697-1719, and in my previous U.S. patent applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989 which are all incorporated herein by this reference.
Fractional Quantum Energy Levels of Hydrogen ~
A number of experimental observations given in the Experimental Section below lead to the conclusion that atomic hydrogen can exist in fractional quantum states that are at lower energies than the traditional "ground" (n=1) state. For example, existence of fractional-quantum-energy-level hydrogen atoms, hereafter called hydrinos, provides an explanation for the soft X-ray emissions of the dark interstellar medium observed by Labov and Bowyer [S. Labov and S. Bowyer, Astrophysical Journal, 371 (1991) 810] and an explanation for the soft X-ray emissions of the Sun [Thomas, R. J., Neupert, W., M., Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, Vol. 91, (1994), pp. 461-482; Malinovsky, M., Heroux, L., Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 181, (1973), pp. 1009-1030; Noyes, R., The Sun, Our Star, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma., (1982), p. 172; Phillips, J. H., Guide to the Sun, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Great Britain, (1992), pp. 118-119; 120-121; 144-145].
J. J. Balmer showed in 1885 that the frequencies for some of the lines observed in the emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen could be expressed with a completely empirical relationship. This approach was later extended by J. R. Rydberg, who showed that all of the spectral lines of atomic hydrogen were given by the equation: ##EQU2## where R=109,677 cm.sup.-1, n.sub.f =1,2,3, . . . , n.sub.i =2,3,4, . . . , and n.sub.i >n.sub.f. Niels Bohr, in 1913, developed a theory for atomic hydrogen that gave energy levels in agreement with Rydberg's equation. An identical equation, based on a totally different theory for the hydrogen atom, was developed by E. Schrodinger, and independently by W. Heisenberg, in 1926. ##EQU3## where a.sub.H is the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the charge of the electron, and .epsilon..sub.o is the vacuum permittivity. Mills' theory predicts that Eq. (2b), should be replaced by Eq. (2c). ##EQU4##
The quantum number n=1 is routinely used to describe the "ground" electronic state of the hydrogen atom. Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.] in a recent advancement of quantum mechanics has shown that the n=1 state is the "ground" state for "pure" photon transitions (the n=1 state can absorb a photon and go to an excited electronic state, but it cannot release a photon and go to a lower-energy electronic state). However, an electron transition from the ground state to a lower-energy state is possible by a "resonant collision" mechanism. These lower-energy states have fractional quantum numbers, ##EQU5## Processes that occur without photons and that require collisions are common. For example, the exothermic chemical reaction of H+H to form H.sub.2 does not occur with the emission of a photon. Rather, the reaction requires a collision with a third body, M, to remove the bond energy-H+H+M.fwdarw.H.sub.2 +M. The third body distributes the energy from the exothermic reaction, and the end result is the H.sub.2 molecule and an increase in the temperature of the system. Similarly, the n=1 state of hydrogen and the ##EQU6## states of hydrogen are nonradiative, but a transition between two nonradiative states is possible via a resonant collision, say n=1 to n=1/2. In these cases, during the collision the electron couples to another electron transition or electron transfer reaction which can absorb the exact amount of energy that must be removed from the hydrogen atom, a resonant energy sink called an energy hole. The end result is a lower-energy state for the hydrogen and increase in temperature of the system.
Wave Equation Solutions of the Hydrogen Atom ~
Recently, Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.] has built on the work generally known as quantum mechanics by deriving a new atomic theory based on first principles. The novel theory hereafter referred to as Mills' theory unifies Maxwell's Equations, Newton's Laws, and Einstein's General and Special Relativity. The central feature of this theory is that all particles (atomic-size and macroscopic particles) obey the same physical laws. Whereas Schrodinger postulated a boundary condition: .PSI..fwdarw.0 as r.fwdarw..infin., the boundary condition in Mills' theory was derived from Maxwell's equations [Haus, H. A., "On the radiation from point charges", American Journal of Physics, 54, (1986), pp. 1126-1129.]:
For non-radiative states, the current-density function must not possess space-time Fourier components that are synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light.
Application of this boundary condition leads to a physical model of particles, atoms, molecules, and, in the final analysis, cosmology. The closed-form mathematical solutions contain fundamental constants only, and the calculated values for physical quantities agree with experimental observations. In addition, the theory predicts that Eq. (2b), should be replaced by Eq. (2c).
Bound electrons are described by a charge-density (mass-density) function which is the product of a radial delta function (f(r)=.delta.(r-r.sub.n)), two angular functions (spherical harmonic functions), and a time harmonic function. Thus, an electron is a spinning, two-dimensional spherical surface, hereafter called an electron orbitsphere, that can exist in a bound state at only specified distances from the nucleus. More explicitly, the orbitsphere comprises a two dimensional spherical shell of moving charge. The corresponding current pattern of the orbitsphere comprises an infinite series of correlated orthogonal great circle current loops. The current pattern (shown in FIG. 1.4 of Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.]) is generated over the surface by two orthogonal sets of an infinite series of nested rotations of two orthogonal great circle current loops where the coordinate axes rotate with the two orthogonal great circles. Each infinitesimal rotation of the infinite series is about the new x-axis and new y-axis which results from the preceding such rotation. For each of the two sets of nested rotations, the angular sum of the rotations about each rotating x-axis and y-axis totals .sqroot.2 .pi. radians. The current pattern gives rise to the phenomenon corresponding to the spin quantum number.
The total function that describes the spinning motion of each electron orbitsphere is composed of two functions. One function, the spin function, is spatially uniform over the orbitsphere, spins with a quantized angular velocity, and gives rise to spin angular momentum. The other function, the modulation function, can be spatially uniform -- in which case there is no orbital angular momentum and the magnetic moment of the electron orbitsphere is one Bohr magneton -- or not spatially uniform -- in which case there is orbital angular momentum. The modulation function also rotates with a quantized angular velocity. Numerical values for the angular velocity, radii of allowed orbitspheres. energies, and associated quantities are calculated by Mills.
Orbitsphere radii are calculated by setting the centripetal force equal to the electric and magnetic forces.
The orbitsphere is a resonator cavity which traps photons of discrete frequencies. The radius of an orbitsphere increases with the absorption of electromagnetic energy. The solutions to Maxwell's equations for modes that can be excited in the orbitsphere resonator cavity give rise to four quantum numbers, and the energies of the modes are the experimentally known hydrogen spectrum.
Excited states are unstable because the charge-density function of the electron plus photon have a radial doublet function component which corresponds to an electric dipole. The doublet possesses spacetime Fourier components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light; thus it is radiative. The charge-density function of the electron plus photon for the n=1 principle quantum state of the hydrogen atom as well as for each of the ##EQU7## states mathematically is purely a radial delta function. The delta function does not possess spacetime Fourier components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light; thus, each is nonradiative.
Catalytic Lower-energy Hydrogen Electronic Transitions ~
Comparing transitions between below "ground" (fractional quantum) energy states as opposed to transitions between excited (integer quantum) energy states, it can be appreciated that the former are not effected by photons; whereas, the latter are. Transitions are symmetric with respect to time. Current density functions which give rise to photons according to the nonradiative boundary condition of Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.] are created by photons in the reverse process. Excited (integer quantum) energy states correspond to this case. And, current density functions which do not give rise to photons according to the nonradiative boundary condition are not created by photons in the reverse process. Below "ground" (fractional quantum) energy states correspond to this case. But, atomic collisions can cause a stable state to undergo a transition to the next stable state. The transition between two stable nonradiative states effected by a collision with an resonant energy sink is analogous to the reaction of two atoms to form a diatomic molecule which requires a third-body collision to remove the bond energy [N. V. Sidgwick, The Chemical Elements and Their Compounds, Volume I, Oxford, Clarendon Press, (1950), p. 17].
Energy Hole Concept
The nonradiative boundary condition of Mills and the relationship between the electron and the photon give the "allowed" hydrogen energy states which are quantized as a function of the parameter n. Each value of n corresponds to an allowed transition effected by a resonant photon which excites the electronic transition. In addition to the traditional integer values (1, 2, 3, . . . ,) of n, values of fractions are allowed which correspond to transitions with an increase in the central field (charge) and decrease in the size of the hydrogen atom. This occurs, for example, when the electron couples to another electronic transition or electron transfer reaction which can absorb energy, an energy sink. This is the absorption of an energy hole. The absorption of an energy hole destroys the balance between the centrifugal force and the increased central electric force. As a result, the electron undergoes a transition to a lower energy nonradiative state.
From energy conservation, the resonance energy hole of a hydrogen atom which excites resonator modes of radial dimensions ##EQU8## is
mX27.2 eV where m=1,2,3,4, . . . (3)
After resonant absorption of the energy hole, the radius of the orbitsphere, a.sub.H, shrinks to ##EQU9## and after p cycles of resonant shrinkage, the radius is ##EQU10## In other words, the radial ground state field can be considered as the superposition of Fourier components. The removal of negative Fourier components of energy mX27.2 eV, where m is an integer increases the positive central electric field inside the spherical shell by m times the charge of a proton. The resultant electric field is a time-harmonic solution of Laplace's Equations in spherical coordinates. In this case, the radius at which force balance and nonradiation are achieved is ##EQU11## where m is an integer. In decaying to this radius from the "ground" state, a total energy of [(m+1).sup.2 -1.sup.2 ]X13.6 eV is released. The transition between two stable nonradiative states effected by a collision with an energy hole is analogous to the reaction of two atoms to form a diatomic molecule which requires a third body collision to remove the bond energy [N. V. Sidgwick, The Chemical Elements and Their Compounds, Volume I, Oxford, Clarendon Press, (1950), p. 17]. The total energy well of the hydrogen atom is shown in FIG. 1. The exothermic reaction involving transitions from one potential energy level to a lower level is hereafter referred to as HydroCatalysis.
A hydrogen atom with its electron in a lower than "ground state" energy level corresponding to a fractional quantum number is hereafter referred to as a hydrino atom. The designation for a hydrino atom of radius ##EQU12## where p is an integer is ##EQU13##
The size of the electron orbitsphere as a function of potential energy is given in FIG. 2.
An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves potassium. For example, the second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However, K.sup.+ releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced to K. The combination of K.sup.+ to K.sup.2+ and K.sup.+ to K, then, has a net energy change of 27.28 eV. ##EQU14## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU15## Note that the energy given off as the atom shrinks is much greater than the energy lost to the energy hole. Also, the energy released is large compared to conventional chemical reactions.
Disproportionation of Energy States
Lower-energy hydrogen atoms, hydrinos, can act as a source of energy holes that can cause resonant shrinkage because the excitation and/or ionization energies are mX27.2 eV (Eq. (3)). For example, the equation for the absorption of an energy hole of 27.21 eV, m=1 in Eq. (3), during the shrinkage cascade for the third cycle of the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU16## with the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU17## that is ionized as the source of energy holes that cause resonant shrinkage is represented by ##EQU18## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU19## The general equation for the absorption of an energy hole of 27.21 eV, m=1 in Eq. (3), during the shrinkage cascade for the pth cycle of the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU20## with the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU21## that is ionized as the source of energy holes that cause resonant shrinkage is represented by ##EQU22## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU23##
Transitions to nonconsecutive energy levels involving the absorption of an energy hole of an integer multiple of 27.21 eV are possible. Lower-energy hydrogen atoms, hydrinos, can act as a source of energy holes that can cause resonant shrinkage with the absorption of an energy hole of mX27.2 eV (Eq. (3)). Thus, the shrinkage cascade for the pth cycle of the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU24## with the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU25## that is ionized as the source of energy holes that cause resonant shrinkage is represented by ##EQU26## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU27##
Hydrogen is a source of energy holes. The ionization energy of hydrogen is 13.6 eV. Disproportionation can occur between three hydrogen atoms whereby two atoms provide an energy hole of 27.21 eV for the third hydrogen atom. Thus, the shrinkage cascade for the pth cycle of the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU28## with two hydrogen atoms, ##EQU29## as the source of energy holes that cause resonant shrinkage is represented by ##EQU30## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU31## The spectral lines from dark interstellar medium and the majority of the solar power can be attributed to disproportionation reactions as given in the Spectral Data of Hydrinos from the Dark Interstellar Medium and from the Sun Section of Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.]. This assignment resolves the mystery of dark matter, the solar neutrino problem, and the mystery of the cause of sunspots and other solar activity and why the Sun emits X-rays. It also provides the reason for the abrupt change in the speed of sound and transition from "radiation zone" to "convection zone" at a radius of 0.7 the solar radius, 0.7 R.sub.s as summarized in Example 4 below.
Energy Hole (Atomic Hydrogen)
In a preferred embodiment, energy holes, each of approximately 27.21 eV, are provided by electron transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen atoms as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state". The energy removed by an electron transfer reaction, energy hole, is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition. The source of hydrogen atoms can be the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.
Below "Ground State" Transitions of Hydrogen-type Molecules and Molecular Ions
Two hydrogen atoms react to form a diatomic molecule, the hydrogen molecule. ##EQU32## where 2c' is the internuclear distance. Also, two hydrino atoms react to form a diatomic molecule, hereafter called a dihydrino molecule. ##EQU33## where p is an integer.
The central force equation for hydrogen-type molecules has orbital solutions which are circular, elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic. The former two types of solutions are associated with atomic and molecular orbitals. These solutions are nonradiative if the boundary condition for nonradiation given in the One Electron Atom Section of The Unification of Spacetime, the Forces, Matter, and Energy, Mills, R., Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., (1992), is met. The mathematical formulation for zero radiation is that the function that describes the motion of the electron must not possess space-time Fourier components that are synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of light. The boundary condition for the orbitsphere is met when the angular frequencies are ##EQU34## As demonstrated in the One Electron Atom Section of The Unification of Spacetime, the Forces, Matter, and Energy, Mills, R., Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., (1992), this condition is met for the product function of a radial Dirac delta function and a time harmonic function where the angular frequency, .omega., is constant and given by Eq. (21). ##EQU35## where L is the angular momentum and A is the area of the closed geodesic orbit. Consider the solution of the central force equation comprising the product of a two dimensional ellipsoid and a time harmonic function. The spatial part of the product function is the convolution of a radial Dirac delta function with the equation of an ellipsoid. The Fourier transform of the convolution of two functions is the product of the individual Fourier transforms of the functions: thus, the boundary condition is met for an ellipsoidal-time harmonic function when ##EQU36## where the area of an ellipse is
A=.pi.ab (24)
where 2b is the length of the semiminor axis and 2a is the length of the semimajor axis. The geometry of molecular hydrogen is elliptic with the internuclear axis as the principle axis; thus, the electron orbital is a two dimensional ellipsoidal-time harmonic function. The mass follows geodesics time harmonically as determined by the central field of the protons at the foci. Rotational symmetry about the internuclear axis further determines that the orbital is a prolate spheroid. In general, ellipsoidal orbits of molecular bonding, hereafter referred to as ellipsoidal molecular orbitals (M. O.'s), have the general equation ##EQU37## The semiprinciple axes of the ellipsoid are a, b, c.
In ellipsoidal coordinates the Laplacian is ##EQU38## An ellipsoidal M. O. is equivalent to a charged conductor whose surface is given by Eq. (25). It carries a total charge q, and it's potential is a solution of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates, Eq. (26).
Excited states of orbitspheres are discussed in the Excited States of the One Electron Atom (Quantization) Section of The Unification of Spacetime, the Forces, Matter, and Energy, Mills, R., Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., (1992). In the case of ellipsoidal M. O.'s, excited electronic states are created when photons of discrete frequencies are trapped in the ellipsoidal resonator cavity of the M. O. The photon changes the effective charge at the M. O. surface where the central field is ellipsoidal. Force balance is achieved at a series of ellipsoidal equipotential two dimensional surfaces confocal with the ground state ellipsoid. The trapped photons are solutions of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates, Eq. (26).
As is the case with the orbitsphere, higher and lower energy states are equally valid. The photon standing wave in both cases is a solution of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates. For an ellipsoidal resonator cavity, the relationship between an allowed circumference, 4aE, and the photon standing wavelength, .lambda., is
4aE=n.lambda. (27)
where n is an integer and where ##EQU39## is used in the elliptic integral E of Eq. (27). Applying Eqs. (27) and (28), the relationship between an allowed angular frequency given by Eq. (23) and the photon standing wave angular frequency, .omega., is: ##EQU40## where n=1,2,3,4, . . . ##EQU41## .omega..sub.1 is the allowed angular frequency for n=1 a.sub.1 and b.sub.1 are the allowed semimajor and semiminor axes for n=1
From Eq. (29), the magnitude of the elliptic field corresponding to a below "ground state" transition of the hydrogen molecule is an integer. The potential energy equations of hydrogen-type molecules are ##EQU42## where ##EQU43## and where p is an integer. From energy conservation, the resonance energy hole of a hydrogen-type molecule which causes the transition ##EQU44## where m and p are integers. During the transition, the elliptic field is increased from magnitude p to magnitude p+m. The corresponding potential energy change equals the energy absorbed by the energy hole.
Energy hole=-V.sub.e -V.sub.p =mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV (37)
Further energy is released by the hydrogen-type molecule as the internuclear distance "shrinks". The total energy, E.sub.T, released during the transition is ##EQU45##
A schematic drawing of the total energy well of hydrogen-type molecules and molecular ions is given in FIG. 3. The exothermic reaction involving transitions from one potential energy level to a lower level below the "ground state" is also hereafter referred to as HydroCatalysis.
A hydrogen-type molecule with its electrons in a lower than "ground state" energy level corresponding to a fractional quantum number is hereafter referred to as a dihydrino molecule. The designation for a dihydrino molecule of internuclear distance, ##EQU46## where p is an integer, is ##EQU47## A schematic drawing of the size of hydrogen-type molecules as a function of total energy is given in FIG. 4.
The magnitude of the elliptic field corresponding to the first below "ground state" hydrogen-type molecule is 2. From energy conservation, the resonance energy hole of a hydrogen molecule which excites the transition of the hydrogen molecule with internuclear distance ##EQU48## to the first below "ground state" with internuclear distance ##EQU49## is given by Eqs. (30) and (31) where the elliptic field is increased from magnitude one to magnitude two: ##EQU50##
In other words, the ellipsoidal "ground state" field of the hydrogen molecule can be considered as the superposition of Fourier components. The removal of negative Fourier components of energy
mX48.6 eV (42)
where m is an integer, increases the positive electric field inside the ellipsoidal shell by m times the charge of a proton at each focus. The resultant electric field is a time harmonic solution of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates. The hydrogen molecule with internuclear distance ##EQU51## is caused to undergo a transition to a below "ground state" level, and the internuclear distance for which force balance and nonradiation are achieved is ##EQU52## In decaying to this internuclear distance from the "ground state", a total energy of ##EQU53## is released. Energy Hole (Molecular Hydrogen)
In a preferred embodiment, energy holes, each of approximately mX48.6 eV, are provided by electron transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen molecules as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state". The energy removed by an electron transfer reaction, energy hole, is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition. The source of hydrogen molecules can be the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.
Energy Reactor
The present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor, pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy reactor, comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid, molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the source of energy holes; and a means for removing the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium. The shrinkage reaction rate and net power output are increased by conforming the energy hole to match the resonance shrinkage energy. In general, power output can be optimized by controlling the temperature, pressure of the hydrogen gas, the source of the energy hole including the electrocatalytic ion or couple which provides the energy hole, the counterion of the electrocatalytic ion or couple, and the area of the surface on which the shrinkage reaction occurs. The present invention further comprises a hydrogen spillover catalyst, a multifunctionality material having a functionality which dissociates molecular hydrogen to provide free hydrogen atoms which spill over to a functionality which supports mobile free hydrogen atoms and a functionality which can be a source of the energy holes.
A preferred pressurized hydrogen gas energy reactor comprises a vessel; a source of hydrogen; a means to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a material to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen, and a material which can be a source of energy holes in the gas phase. The gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime, boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature of the gas energy reactor wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs in the gas phase.
Other objects, features, and characteristics of the present invention, as well as the methods of operation and the functions of the related elements, will become apparent upon consideration of the following description and the appended claims with reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form a part of this specification, wherein like reference numerals designate corresponding parts in the various figures.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of the total energy well of the hydrogen atom;

FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing of the size of electron orbitspheres as a function of potential energy;

FIG. 3 is a schematic drawing of the total energy wells of the hydrogen molecule, H.sub.2 [2c'=.sqroot.2a.sub.o ], the hydrogen molecular ion, H.sub.2 [2c'=2a.sub.o ].sup.+, the dihydrino molecule, ##EQU54## and the dihydrino molecular ion, H.sub.2.sup.* [2c'=a.sub.o ].sup.+ ;

FIG. 4 is a schematic drawing of the size of hydrogen-type molecules, ##EQU55## as a function of total energy;

FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing of an energy reactor in accordance with the invention;

FIG. 6 is a schematic drawing of an electrolytic cell energy reactor in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 7 is a schematic drawing of a pressurized gas energy reactor in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 8 is a schematic drawing of a gas discharge energy reactor in accordance with the invention; and

FIG. 9 is a plot of the excess heat release from flowing hydrogen in the presence of nickel oxide powder containing strontium niobium oxide (Nb.sup.3+ /Sr.sup.2+ electrocatalytic couple) by the very accurate and reliable method of heat measurement, thermopile conversion of heat into an electrical output signal.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENTLY PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
CATALYTIC ENERGY HOLE STRUCTURE FOR ATOMS
Single Electron Excited State ~
An energy hole is provided by the transition of an electron of a species to an excited state species including a continuum excited state(s) of atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the excited state transition of an electron of one species whereby the transition energy of the accepting species equals approximately mX27.21 eV where m is an integer.
Single Electron Transfer
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of an electron between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one species to another species whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the electron donating species minus the ionization energy or electron affinity of the electron accepting species equals approximately mX27.21 eV where m is an integer.
Single Electron Transfer (Two Species)
An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves potassium. For example, the second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However, K.sup.+ releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced to K. The combination of K.sup.+ to K.sup.2+ and K.sup.+ to K, then, has a net energy change of 27.28 eV; m=1 in Eq. (3). ##EQU56## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU57## Note that the energy given off as the atom shrinks is much greater than the energy lost to the energy hole. And, the energy released is large compared to conventional chemical reactions.
For sodium or sodium ions no electrocatalytic reaction of approximately 27.21 eV is possible. For example, 42.15 eV of energy is absorbed by the reverse of the reaction given in Eq. (45) where Na.sup.+ replaces K.sup.+ :
Na.sup.+ +Na.sup.+ +42.15 eV.fwdarw.Na+Na.sup.2+ (47)
Other less efficient catalytic systems hinge on the coupling of three resonator cavities. For example, the third ionization energy of palladium is 32.93 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However, Li.sup.+ releases 5.392 eV when it is reduced to Li. The combination of Pd.sup.2+ to Pd.sup.3+ and Li.sup.+ to Li, then, has a net energy change of 27.54 eV. ##EQU58## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU59## Single Electron Transfer (One Species)
An energy hole is provided by the ionization of an electron from a participating species including an atom, an ion, a molecule, and an ionic or molecular compound to a vacuum energy level. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the ionization of an electron from one species to a vacuum energy level whereby the ionization energy of the electron donating species equals approximately mX27.21 eV where m is an integer.
Titanium is one of the catalysts (electrocatalytic ion) that can cause resonant shrinkage because the third ionization energy is 27.49 eV, m=1 in Eq. (3). Thus, the shrinkage cascade for the pth cycle is represented by ##EQU60## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU61##
Rubidium is also a catalyst (electrocatalytic ion). The second ionization energy is 27.28 eV. ##EQU62## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU63##
Other single electron transfer reactions to provide energy holes of approximately mX27.21 eV where m is an integer appear in my previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989, which are incorporated herein by reference.
Multiple Electron Transfer
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mX27.21 eV where m and t are integers.
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one species to another whereby the t consecutive electron affinities and/or ionization energies of the electron donating species minus the t consecutive ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor equals approximately mX27.21 eV where m and t are integers.
In a preferred embodiment the electron acceptor species is an oxide such as MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x. A preferred molecular electron acceptor is oxygen, O.sub.2.
Two Electron Transfer (One Species)
In an embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the ionization of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to a vacuum energy level such that the sum of two ionization energies is approximately 27.21 eV. Zinc is one of the catalysts (electrocatalytic atom) that can cause resonant shrinkage because the sum of the first and second ionization energies is 27.358 eV, m=1 in Eq. (3). Thus, the shrinkage cascade for the p th cycle is represented by ##EQU64## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU65## Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)
In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two electron affinities of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately 27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom to a molecule involves palladium and oxygen. For example, the first and second ionization energies of palladium are 8.34 eV and 19.43 eV, respectively. And, the first and second electron affinities of the oxygen molecule are 0.45 eV and 0.11 eV, respectively. The energy hole resulting from a two electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination of Pd to Pd.sup.2+ and O.sub.2 to O.sub.2.sup.2-, then, has a net energy change of 27.21 eV. ##EQU66## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU67## Additional atoms, molecules, or compounds which could be substituted for O.sub.2 are those with first and second electron affinities of approximately 0.45 eV and 0.11 eV, respectively, such as a mixed oxide (MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x) containing O to form O.sup.2- or O.sub.2 to form O.sub.2.sup.2-.
Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)
In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of one ionization energy and one electron affinity of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately 27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom to an ion involves xenon and lithium. For example, the first and second ionization energies of xenon are 12.13 eV and 21.21 eV, respectively. And, the first ionization energy and the first electron affinity of lithium are 5.39 eV and 0.62 eV, respectively. The energy hole resulting from a two electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination of Xe to Xe.sup.2+ and Li.sup.+ to Li.sup.-, then, has a net energy change of 27.33 eV. ##EQU68## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU69## Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)
In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two ionization energies of the participating atoms and/or molecules is approximately 27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of two electrons from a first ion to a second ion involves silver(Ag.sup.+) and silver (Ag.sup.2+). For example, the second and third ionization energies of silver are 21.49 eV and 34.83 eV, respectively. And, the second and first ionization energies of silver are 21.49 eV and 7.58 eV, respectively. The energy hole resulting from a two electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination of Ag.sup.+ to Ag.sup.3+ and Ag.sup.2+ to Ag, then, has a net energy change of 27.25 eV. ##EQU70## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU71## Three Electron Transfer (Two Species)
In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an ion to another ion such that the sum of the electron affinity and two ionization energies of the first ion minus the sum of three ionization energies of the second ion is approximately 27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an ion to a second ion involves Li.sup.- and Cr.sup.3+. For example, the electron affinity, first ionization energy, and second ionization energy of lithium are 0.62 eV, 5.392 eV, and 75.638 eV, respectively. And, the third, second, and first ionization energies of Cr.sup.3+ are 30.96 eV, 16.50 eV, and 6.766 eV, respectively. The energy hole resulting from a three electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination of Li.sup.- to Li.sup.2+ and Cr.sup.3+ to Cr, then, has a net energy change of 27.42 eV. ##EQU72## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU73## Three Electron Transfer (Two Species)
In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such that the sum of three consecutive ionization energies of the electron donating species minus the sum of three consecutive ionization energies of the electron accepting species is approximately 27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an atom to an ion involves Ag and Ce.sup.3+. For example, the first, second, and third ionization energies of silver are 7.58 eV, 21.49 eV, and 34.83 eV, respectively. And, the third, second, and first ionization energies of Ce.sup.3+ are 20.20 eV, 10.85 eV, and 5.47 eV, respectively. The energy hole resulting from a three electron transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination of Ag to Ag.sup.3+ and Ce.sup.3+ to Ce, then, has a net energy change of 27.38 eV. ##EQU74## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU75##
ADDITIONAL CATALYTIC ENERGY HOLE STRUCTURES
Single Electron Transfer
In a further embodiment, an energy hole of energy equal to the total energy released for a below "ground state" electronic transition of the hydrogen atom is provided by the transfer of an electron between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one species to another species whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the electron donating species minus the ionization energy or electron affinity of the electron accepting species equals approximately ##EQU76## where m is an integer.
For m=3 corresponding to the n=1 to n=1/2 transition, an efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves arsenic and calcium. For example, the third ionization energy of calcium is 50.908 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However, As.sup.+ releases 9.81 eV when it is reduced to As. The combination of Ca.sup.2+ to Ca.sup.3+ and As.sup.+ to As, then, has a net energy change of 41.1 eV. ##EQU77## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU78## Multiple Electron Transfer
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately ##EQU79## where m and t are integers.
CATALYTIC ENERGY HOLE STRUCTURES FOR MOLECULES
Single Electron Excited State
An energy hole is provided by the transition of an electron of a species to an excited state species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the excited state transition of an electron of one species whereby the transition energy of the accepting species is mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are integers.
Single Electron Transfer
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of an electron between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one species to another species whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the electron donating species minus the ionization energy or electron affinity of the electron accepting species equals approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are integers.
Single Electron Transfer (Two Species)
An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves iron and lithium. For example, the fourth ionization energy of iron is 54.8 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However, Li.sup.+ releases 5.392 eV when it is reduced to Li. The combination of Fe.sup.3+ to Fe.sup.4+ and Li.sup.+ to Li, then, has a net energy change of 49.4 eV. ##EQU80## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU81## Note that the energy given off as the molecule shrinks is much greater than the energy lost to the energy hole. And, the energy released is large compared to conventional chemical reactions.
An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves scandium. For example, the fourth ionization energy of scandium is 73.47 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However, Sc.sup.3+ releases 24.76 eV when it is reduced to Sc.sup.2+. The combination of Sc.sup.3+ to Sc.sup.4+ and Sc.sup.3+ to Sc.sup.2+, then, has a net energy change of 48.7 eV. ##EQU82## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU83##
An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves yttrium. For example, the fourth ionization energy of gallium is 64.00 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However, Pb.sup.2+ releases 15.03 eV when it is reduced to Pb.sup.+. The combination of Ga.sup.3+ to Ga.sup.4+ and Pb.sup.2+ to Pb.sup.+, then, has a net energy change of 48.97 eV. ##EQU84## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU85## Single Electron Transfer (One Species)
An energy hole is provided by the ionization of an electron from a participating species including an atom, an ion, a molecule, and an ionic or molecular compound to a vacuum energy level. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the ionization of an electron from one species to a vacuum energy level whereby the ionization energy of the electron donating species equals approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are integers.
Multiple Electron Transfer
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m, p, and t are integers.
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one species to another whereby the t consecutive electron affinities and/or ionization energies of the electron donating species minus the t consecutive ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor equals approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m, p, and t are integers.
In a preferred embodiment the electron acceptor species is an oxide such as MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x. A preferred molecular electron acceptor is oxygen, O.sub.2.
Two Electron Transfer (One Species)
In an embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the ionization of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to a vacuum energy level such that the sum of two ionization energies is approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m, and p are integers.
Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)
In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two electron affinities of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are integers.
Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)
In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of one ionization energy and one electron affinity of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are integers.
Other Energy Holes
In another embodiment, energy holes, each of approximately mX67.8 eV given by Eq. (30) ##EQU86## are provided by electron transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen molecules as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state". The energy removed by an electron transfer reaction, energy hole, is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition. The source of hydrogen molecules is the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mX67.8 eV where m and t are integers.
An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves magnesium and strontium. For example, the third ionization energy of magnesium is 80.143 eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However, Sr.sup.2+ releases 11.03 eV when it is reduced to Sr.sup.+. The combination of Mg.sup.2+ to Mg.sup.3+ and Sr.sup.2+ to Sr.sup.+, then, has a net energy change of 69.1 eV. ##EQU87## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU88##
Another efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves magnesium and calcium. In this case, Ca.sup.2+ releases 11.871 eV when it is reduced to Ca.sup.+. The combination of Mg.sup.2+ to Mg.sup.3+ and Ca.sup.2+ to Ca.sup.+, then, has a net energy change of 68.2 eV. ##EQU89## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU90##
In four other embodiments wherein the theory is given in my previous U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993 which is incorporated herein by this reference, energy holes, each of approximately:
nXE.sub.T eV with zero order vibration where E.sub.T is given by Eq. (38);
mX31.94 eV where 31.94 eV is given by Eq. (222) of the U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/107,357 where n and m are integers, ##EQU91## and 95.7 eV (corresponding to m=1 in Eq. (43) with zero order vibration which is given by the difference in ##EQU92## of Eqs. (254) and (222) of the U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/107,357)) ##EQU93## are provided by electron transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen molecules as their electrons are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground state". The energy removed by an electron transfer reaction, energy hole, is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition. The source of hydrogen molecules is the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mX31.94 eV (Eq. (222)) where m and t are integers.
An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more electrons between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals approximately mX95.7 eV where m and t are integers.
ENERGY REACTOR
An energy reactor 50, in accordance with the invention, is shown in FIG. 5 and comprises a vessel 52 which contains an energy reaction mixture 54, a heat exchanger 60, and a steam generator 62. The heat exchanger 60 absorbs heat released by the shrinkage reaction, when the reaction mixture, comprised of shrinkable material, shrinks. The heat exchanger exchanges heat with the steam generator 62 which absorbs heat from the exchanger 60 and produces steam. The energy reactor 50 further comprises a turbine 70 which receives steam from the steam generator 62 and supplies mechanical power to a power generator 80 which converts the steam energy into electrical energy, which can be received by a load 90 to produce work or for dissipation.
The energy reaction mixture 54 comprises an energy releasing material 56 including a source of hydrogen isotope atoms or a source of molecular hydrogen isotope, and a source of energy holes 58 which resonantly remove approximately mX27.21 eV to cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage" and approximately mX48.6 eV to cause molecular hydrogen "shrinkage" where m is an integer wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the source of energy holes. The shrinkage reaction releases heat and shrunken atoms and/or molecules.
The source of hydrogen can be hydrogen gas, dissociation of water including thermal dissociation, electrolysis of water, hydrogen from hydrides, or hydrogen from metal-hydrogen solutions. In all embodiments, the source of energy holes can be one or more of an electrochemical, chemical, photochemical, thermal, free radical, sonic, or nuclear reaction(s) or inelastic photon or particle scattering reaction(s). In the latter two cases, the present invention of an energy reactor comprises a particle source 75b and/or photon source 75a to supply the said energy holes. In these cases, the energy hole corresponds to stimulated emission by the photon or particle. In preferred embodiments of the pressurized gas energy and gas discharge reactors shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, respectively, a photon source 75a dissociates hydrogen molecules to hydrogen atoms. The photon source producing photons of at least one energy of approximately mX27.21 eV, ##EQU94## or 40.8 eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen atoms undergo the shrinkage reaction. In another preferred embodiment, a photon source 75a producing photons of at least one energy of approximately mX48.6 eV, 95.7 eV, or mX31.94 eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen molecules undergo the shrinkage reaction. In all reaction mixtures, a selected external energy device 75, such as an electrode may be used to supply an electrostatic potential or a current (magnetic field) to decrease the activation energy of the resonant absorption of an energy hole. In another embodiment, the mixture 54, further comprises a surface or material to dissociate and/or absorb atoms and/or molecules of the energy releasing material 56. Such surfaces or materials to dissociate and/or absorb hydrogen, deuterium, or tritium comprise an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite). In a preferred embodiment, a source of energy holes to shrink hydrogen atoms comprises a catalytic energy hole material 58, typically comprising electrocatalytic ions and couples that provide an energy hole of approximately mX27.21 eV plus or minus 1 eV. In a preferred embodiment, a source of energy holes to shrink hydrogen molecules comprises a catalytic energy hole material 58, typically comprising electrocatalytic ions and couple(s) including those that provide an energy hole of approximately nX48.6 eV plus or minus 5 eV. The electrocatalytic ions and couple(s) include the electrocatalytic ions and couples described in my previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/1626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989, which are incorporated herein by reference.
A further embodiment is the vessel 52 containing a source of energy holes including an electrocatalytic ion or couple(s) (source of energy holes) in the molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid state and a source of hydrogen including hydrides and gaseous hydrogen. In the case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms, the embodiment further comprises a means to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen including an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements, inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite) or electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by photon source 75.
The present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor, pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy reactor, comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid, molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the source of energy holes; and a means for removing the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent an exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium. The present energy invention is further described in my previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989, and my publications, Mills, R., Kneizys, S., Fusion Technology, 210, (1991), pp. 65-81; Mills, R., Good, W., Shaubach, R., "Dihydrino Molecule Identification", Fusion Technology, 25, 103 (1994); Mills, R., Good, W., "Fractional Quantum Energy Levels of Hydrogen", Fusion Technology, Vol. 28, No. 4, November, (1995), pp. 1697-1719 which are incorporated herein by reference.
Electrolytic Energy Reactor
An electrolytic energy reactor is described in my previous U.S. patent applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989 which are incorporated herein by reference. A preferred embodiment of the energy reactor of the present invention comprises an electrolytic cell forming the reaction vessel 52 of FIG. 5 including a molten electrolytic cell. The electrolytic cell 100 is shown generally in FIG. 6. An electric current is passed through the electrolytic solution 102 having a electrocatalytic ions or couples providing energy holes equal to the resonance shrinkage energy (including the electrocatalytic ions and couples described in my previous U.S. Patent Applications incorporated herein by reference) by the application of a voltage to an anode 104 and cathode 106 by the power controller 108 powered by the power supply 110. Ultrasonic or mechanical energy may also be imparted to the cathode 106 and electrolytic solution 102 by vibrating means 112. Heat can be supplied to the electrolytic solution 102 by heater 114. The pressure of the electrolytic cell 100 can be controlled by pressure regulator means 116 where the cell can be closed. The reactor further comprises a means 101 that removes the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
In a preferred embodiment, the electrolytic cell is operated at zero voltage gap by applying an overpressure of hydrogen with hydrogen source 121 where the overpressure can be controlled by pressure control means 122 and 116. Water can be reduced to hydrogen and hydroxide at the cathode 106, and the hydrogen can be oxidized to protons at the anode 104. An embodiment of the electrolytic cell energy reactor, comprises a reverse fuel cell geometry which removes the lower-energy hydrogen under vacuum. A preferred cathode 106 of this embodiment has a modified gas diffusion layer and comprises a gas route means including a first Teflon membrane filter and a second carbon paper/Teflon membrane filter composite layer. A further embodiment comprises a reaction vessel that can be closed except for a connection to a condensor 140 on the top of the vessel 100. The cell can be operated at a boil such that the steam evolving from the boiling electrolyte 102 can be condensed in the condenser 140, and the condensed water can be returned to the vessel 100. The lower-energy state hydrogen can be vented through the top of the condenser 140. In one embodiment, the condensor contains a hydrogen/oxygen recombiner 145 that contacts the evolving electrolytic gases. The hydrogen and oxygen are recombined, and the resulting water can be returned to the vessel 100. The heat released from the exothermic reaction whereby the electrons of the electrolytically produced hydrogen atoms (molecules) are induced to undergo transitions to energy levels below the "ground state" and the heat released due to the recombination of the electrolytically generated normal hydrogen and oxygen can be removed by a heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5 which can be connected to the condensor 140.
In vacuum, in the absence of external fields, the energy hole to stimulate a hydrogen atom (molecule) to undergo a shrinkage transition is mX27.21 eV (mX48.6 eV) where m is an integer. This resonance shrinkage energy can be altered when the atom (molecule) is in a media different from vacuum. An example is a hydrogen atom (molecule) absorbed to the cathode 106 present in the aqueous electrolytic solution 102 having an applied electric field and an intrinsic or applied magnetic field provided by external magnetic field generator 75. Under these conditions the energy hole required can be slightly different from mX27.21 eV (mX48.6 eV). Thus, a source of energy holes including electrocatalytic ion and couple reactants can be selected which has a redox (electron transfer) energy resonant with the resonance shrinkage energy when operating under these conditions. In the case where a nickel cathode 106 is used to electrolyze an aqueous solution 102 where the cell is operating within a voltage range of 1.4 to 5 volts, the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ and Rb.sup.+ (Fe.sup.3+ /Li.sup.+ and Sc.sup.3+ /Sc.sup.3+) electrocatalytic ions and couples are preferred embodiments to shrink hydrogen atoms (molecules).
The cathode provides hydrogen atoms (molecules), and the shrinkage reaction occurs at the surface of the cathode where hydrogen atoms (molecules) and the source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) are in contact. Thus, the shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the surface area of the cathode. For a constant current density, giving a constant concentration of hydrogen atoms (molecules) per unit area, an increase in surface area increases the reactants available to undergo the shrinkage reaction. Also. an increase in cathode surface area decreases the resistance of the electrolytic cell which improves the electrolysis efficiency. A preferred cathode of the electrolytic cell including a nickel cathode has the properties of a high surface area, a highly stressed and hardened surface such as a cold drawn or cold worked surface, and a large number of grain boundaries.
In a preferred embodiment of the electrolytic cell energy reactor, the source of energy holes can be incorporated into the cathode, mechanically by methods including cold working the source of energy holes into the surface of the cathode; thermally by methods including melting the source of energy holes into the surface of the cathode and evaporation of a solvent of a solution of the source of energy holes in contact with the surface of the cathode, and electrostatically by methods including electrolytic deposition, ion bombardment, and vacuum deposition.
The shrinkage reaction rate can be dependent upon the composition of the cathode 106. Hydrogen atoms (molecules) are reactants to produce energy via the shrinkage reaction. Thus, the cathode must efficiently provide a high concentration of hydrogen atoms (molecules). The cathode 106 can be comprised of any element. compound, alloy, or mixture of a conductor or semiconductor including transition elements and compounds, actinide and lanthanide elements and compounds, and group IIIB and IVB elements and compounds. Transition metals dissociate hydrogen gas into atoms to a more or lesser extent depending on the metal. Nickel and titanium readily dissociate hydrogen molecules and are preferred embodiments for shrinking hydrogen atoms. The cathode can alter the energy of the absorbed hydrogen atoms (molecules) and affect the energy of the shrinkage reaction. A cathode material can be selected which provides resonance between the energy hole and the resonance shrinkage energy. In the case of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple with carbonate as the counterion for catalyzing the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms, the relationship of the cathode material to the reaction rate can be:
Pt<Pd<<Ti,Fe<Ni
This can be the opposite order of the energy released when these materials absorb hydrogen atoms. Thus, for this electrocatalytic couple, the reaction rate can be increased by using a cathode which weakly absorbs the hydrogen atoms with little perturbation of their electronic energies.
Also, coupling of resonator cavities and enhancement of the transfer of energy between them can be increased when the media is a nonlinear media such as a magnetized ferromagnetic media. Thus, a paramagnetic or ferromagnetic cathode, a nonlinear magnetized media, increases the reaction rate by increasing the coupling of the resonance shrinkage energy of the hydrogen atom and energy hole comprising an electrocatalytic ion or couple. Alternatively, a magnetic field can be applied with the magnetic field generator 75. Magnetic fields at the cathode alter the energy of absorbed hydrogen and concomitantly alter the resonance shrinkage energy. Magnetic fields also perturb the energy of the electrocatalytic reactions (energy hole) by altering the energy levels of the electrons involved in the reactions. The magnetic properties of the cathode are selected as well as the strength of the magnetic field which is applied by magnetic field generator 75 to optimize shrinkage reaction rate-the power output. A preferred ferromagnetic cathode is nickel.
A preferred method to clean the cathode of the electrolytic cell including a nickel cathode is to anodize the cathode in a basic electrolytic solution including approximately 0.57 M X.sub.2 CO.sub.3 (X is the alkali cation of the electrolyte including K.sup.+) and to immerse the cathode in a dilute solution of H.sub.2 O.sub.2 such as approximately 3% H.sub.2 O.sub.2. In a further embodiment of the cleaning method, cyclic voltametry with a second electrode of the same material as the first cathode is performed. The cathode can be then thoroughly rinsed with distilled water. Organic material on the surface of the cathode inhibits the catalytic reaction whereby the electrons of the electrolytically produced hydrogen atoms (molecules) are induced to undergo transitions to energy levels below the "ground state". Cleaning by this method removes the organic material from the cathode surface and adds oxygen atoms onto the cathode surface. Doping the metal surface, including a nickel surface, with oxygen atoms by anodizing the cathode and cleaning the cathode in H.sub.2 O.sub.2 increases the power output by decreasing hydrogen recombination to molecular hydrogen and by decreasing the bond energy between the metal and the hydrogen atoms (molecules) which conforms the resonance shrinkage energy of the absorbed hydrogen to the energy hole provided by the source of energy holes including the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ (Sc.sup.3+ /Sc.sup.3+) electrocatalytic couples.
Different anode materials have different overpotentials for the oxidation of water, which can affect ohmic losses. An anode of low overpotential will increase the efficiency. Nickel, platinum, and dimensionally stable anodes including platinized titanium are preferred anodes. In the case of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple where carbonate is used as the counterion, nickel is a preferred anode. Nickel is also a preferred anode for use in basic solutions with a nickel cathode. Nickel is inexpensive relative to platinum, and fresh nickel can be electroplated onto the cathode during electrolysis.
A preferred method to clean a dimensionally stable anode including a platinized titanium anode is to place the anode in approximately 3 M HCl for approximately 5 minutes and then to rinse it with distilled water.
In the case of hydrogen atom shrinkage, hydrogen atoms at the surface of the cathode 106 form hydrogen gas which can form bubbles on the surface of the cathode. These bubbles act as an boundary layer between the hydrogen atoms and the electrocatalytic ion or couple. The boundary can be ameliorated by vibrating the cathode and/or the electrolytic solution 102 or by applying ultrasound with vibrating means 112; and by adding wetting agents to the electrolytic solution 102 to reduce the surface tension of the water and prevent bubble formation. The use of a cathode having a smooth surface or a wire cathode prevents gas adherence. And an intermittent current, provided by an on-off circuit of power controller 108 provides periodic replenishing of hydrogen atoms which are dissipated by hydrogen gas formation followed by diffusion into the solution while preventing excessive hydrogen gas formation which could form a boundary layer.
The shrinkage reaction can be temperature dependent. Most chemical reactions double their rates for each 10.degree. C. rise in temperature. Increasing the temperature increases the collision rate between the hydrogen atoms (molecules) and the electrocatalytic ion or couple which will increase the shrinkage reaction rate. With large temperature excursions from room temperature, the kinetic energy distribution of the reactants can be sufficiently altered to cause the energy hole and the resonance shrinkage energy to conform to a more or lesser extent. The rate can be proportional to the extent of the conformation or resonance of these energies. The temperature can be adjusted to optimize the shrinkage reaction rate-energy production rate. In the case of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple, a preferred embodiment can be to run the reaction at a temperature above room temperature by applying heat with heater 114.
The shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the current density. An increase in current density can be equivalent, in some aspects, to an increase in temperature. The collision rate increases, and the energy of the reactants increases with current density. Thus, the rate can be increased by increasing the collision rate of the reactants; however, the rate may be increased or decreased depending on the effect of the increased reactant energies on the conformation of the energy hole and the resonance shrinkage energy. Also, increased current dissipates more energy by ohmic heating and may cause hydrogen bubble formation, in the case of the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms. But, a high flow of gas may dislodge bubbles which diminishes any hydrogen gas boundary layer. The current density can be adjusted with power controller 108 to optimize the excess energy production. In a preferred embodiment, the current density can be in the range 1 to 1000 milliamps per square centimeter.
The pH of the aqueous electrolytic solution 102 can affect the shrinkage reaction rate. In the case that the electrocatalytic ion or couple is positively charged, an increase in the pH will reduce the concentration of hydronium at the negative cathode; thus, the concentration of the electrocatalytic ion or couple cations will increase. An increase in reactant concentration increases the reaction rate. In the case of the Rb.sup.+ or K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ (Sc.sup.3+ /Sc.sup.3+) ion or couple, a preferred pH can be basic (7.1-14).
The counterion of the electrocatalytic ion or couple of the electrolytic solution 102 can affect the shrinkage reaction rate by altering the energy of the transition state. For example, the transition state complex of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple with the hydrogen atom has a plus two charge and involves a three body collision which can be unfavorable. A negative two charged oxyanion can bind the two potassium ions; thus, it provides a neutral transition state complex of lower energy whose formation depends on a binary collision which can be greatly favored. The rate can be dependent on the separation distance of the potassium ions as part of the complex with the oxyanion. The greater the separation distance, the less favorable can be the transfer of an electron between them. A close juxtaposition of the potassium ions will increase the rate. The relationship of the reaction rate to the counterion in the case where the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ couple is used can be:
OH.sup.-<PO.sub.4.sup.3-, HPO.sub.3.sup.2- <SO.sub.4.sup.2- <<CO.sub.3.sup.2-
Thus, a planar negative two charge oxyanion including carbonate with at least two binding sites for K.sup.+ which provides close juxtaposition of the K.sup.+ ions can be preferred as the counterion of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple. The carbonate counterion can be also a preferred counterion for the Rb.sup.+ electrocatalytic ion.
A power controller 108 comprising an intermittent current, on-off, electrolysis circuit will increase the excess heat by providing optimization of the electric field as a function of time which provides maximum conformation of reactant energies, provides an optimal concentration of hydrogen atoms (molecules) while minimizing ohmic and electrolysis power losses and, in the case of the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms, minimizes the formation of a hydrogen gas boundary layer. The frequency, duty cycle, peak voltage, step waveform, peak current, and offset voltage are adjusted to achieve the optimal shrinkage reaction rate and shrinkage reaction power while minimizing ohmic and electrolysis power losses. In the case where the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple can be used with carbonate as the counterion; nickel as the cathode: and platinum as the anode, a preferred embodiment can be to use an intermittent square-wave having an offset voltage of approximately 1.4 volts to 2.2 volts; a peak voltage of approximately 1.5 volts to 3.75 volts; a peak current of approximately 1 mA to 100 mA per square centimeter of cathode surface area; approximately a 5%-90% duty cycle; and a frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 1500 Hz.
Further energy can be released by repeating the shrinkage reaction. The atoms (molecules) which have undergone shrinkage diffuse into the cathode lattice. A cathode 106 can be used which will facilitates multiple shrinkage reactions of hydrogen atoms (molecules). One embodiment is to use a cathode which can be fissured and porous to the electrocatalytic ion or couple such that it can contact shrunken atoms (molecules) which have diffused into a lattice, including a metal lattice. A further embodiment is to use a cathode of alternating layers of a material which provides hydrogen atoms (molecules) during electrolysis including a transition metal and an electrocatalytic ion or couple such that shrunken hydrogen atoms (molecules) periodically or repetitively diffuse into contact with the electrocatalytic ion or couple.
The shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the dielectric constant of the media. The dielectric constant of the media alters the electric field at the cathode and concomitantly alters the energy of the reactants. Solvents of different dielectric constants have different solvation energies, and the dielectric constant of the solvent can also lower the overpotential for electrolysis and improve electrolysis efficiency. A solvent, including water, can be selected for the electrolytic solution 102 which optimizes the conformation of the energy hole and resonance shrinkage energy and maximizes the efficiency of electrolysis.
The solubility of hydrogen in the reaction solution can be directly proportional to the pressure of hydrogen above the solution. Increasing the pressure increases the concentration of reactant hydrogen atoms (molecules) at the cathode 106 and thereby increases the rate. But, in the case of the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms this also favors the development of a hydrogen gas boundary layer. The hydrogen pressure can be controlled by pressure regulator means 116 to optimize the shrinkage reaction rate.
In a preferred embodiment, the cathode 106 of the electrolytic cell comprises the catalytic material including a hydrogen spillover catalyst described in the Pressurized Gas Energy Reactor Section below. In another embodiment, the cathode comprises multiple hollow vessels comprising a thin film conductive shell whereby lower-energy hydrogen diffuses through the thin film and collects inside each vessel and undergoes disproportionation reactions therein.
The heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present in at least the vessel 100 and the condensor 140 of FIG. 6 and the heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5. The output power can be controlled by a computerized monitoring and control system which monitors the thermistors and controls the means to alter the power output.
Pressurized Gas Energy Reactor
A pressurized gas energy reactor comprises the first vessel 200 of FIG. 7 containing a source of hydrogen including hydrogen from metal-hydrogen solutions, hydrogen from hydrides, hydrogen from the dissociation of water including thermal dissociation, hydrogen from the electrolysis of water, or hydrogen gas. In the case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms, the reactor further comprises a means to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen such as a dissociating material including an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite) or electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by photon source 205 such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms (molecules) contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes including the electrocatalytic ions and couples described in my previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989, which are incorporated herein by reference. The pressurized gas energy reactor further comprises a means 201 to remove the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium. One embodiment comprises heat pipes as heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5 which have a lower-energy hydrogen venting valve at a cold spot.
A preferred embodiment of the pressurized gas energy reactor of the present invention comprises a first reaction vessel 200 with inner surface 240 comprised of a material to dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen including an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Th, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite). In a further embodiment, the inner surface 240 can be comprised of a proton conductor. The first reaction vessel 200 can be sealed in a second reaction vessel 220 and receives hydrogen from source 221 under pressure which can be controlled by pressure measurement and control means 222 and 223. In a preferred embodiment the hydrogen pressure can be in the range of 10.sup.-3 atmospheres to 100 atmospheres. The wall 250 of the first vessel 200 can be permeable to hydrogen. The outer surface 245 and/or outer vessel 220 has a source of energy holes equal to the resonance shrinkage energy. In one embodiment the source of energy holes can be a mixture or solution containing energy holes in the molten, liquid, or solid state. In another embodiment an electric current can be passed through the material having a source of energy holes. The reactor further comprises a means to control the reaction rate such as current source 225 and heating means 230 which heat the first reaction vessel 200 and the second reaction vessel 220. In a preferred embodiment the outer reaction vessel 220 contains oxygen, the inner surface 240 comprises one or more of a coat of nickel, platinum, or palladium. The outer surface 245 can be coated with one or more of copper, tellurium, arsenic, cesium, platinum, or palladium and an oxide such as CuO.sub.x, PtO.sub.x, PdO.sub.x, MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x. The electrocatalytic ion or couple can be regenerated spontaneously or via a regeneration means including heating means 230 and current source 225.
In another embodiment, the pressurized gas energy reactor comprises only a single reaction vessel 200 with a hydrogen impermeable wall 250. In the case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms, one or more of a hydrogen dissociating materials including transition elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite) are coated on the inner surface 240 with a source of energy holes including one or more of copper, tellurium, arsenic, cesium, platinum, or palladium and an oxide such as CuO.sub.x, PtO.sub.x, PdO.sub.x, MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x. In another embodiment, the source of energy hole can be one of a inelastic photon or particle scattering reaction(s). In a preferred embodiment the photon source 205 supplies the energy holes where the energy hole corresponds to stimulated emission by the photon. In the case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms the photon source 205 dissociates hydrogen molecules into hydrogen atoms. The photon source producing photons of at least one energy of approximately mX27.21 eV, ##EQU95## or 40.8 eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen atoms undergo the shrinkage reaction. In another preferred embodiment, a photon source 205 producing photons of at least one energy of approximately mX48.6 eV, 95.7 eV, or mX31.94 eV causes stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen molecules undergo the shrinkage reaction.
A preferred inner surface, 240, and outer surface, 245, of the pressurized gas energy reactor including a nickel surface has the properties of a high surface area, a highly stressed and hardened surface such as a cold drawn or cold worked surface, and a large number of grain boundaries.
In an embodiment of the pressurized gas energy reactor, the source of energy holes can be incorporated into the inner surface, 240, and outer surface, 245, mechanically by methods including cold working the source of energy holes into the surface material and thermally by methods including melting the source of energy holes into the surface material (fusion). Further methods of incorporation include dry impregnation, evaporation of a solution of the source of energy holes in contact with the surface material (precipitation), ion bombardment, vacuum deposition, impregnation, leaching, and electrostatic incorporation including electrolytic deposition and electroplating. A preferred method to clean the inner surface 240 and the outer surface 245 including a nickel surface is to fill the inner vessel and the outer vessel with a basic electrolytic solution including approximately 0.57 M X.sub.2 CO.sub.3 (X is the alkali cation of the electrolyte including K.sup.+) and to fill the inner vessel and the outer vessel with a dilute solution of H.sub.2 O.sub.2. Each of the inner vessel and the outer vessel can be then thoroughly rinsed with distilled water. In one embodiment, at least one of the vessel 200 or the vessel 220 can be then filled with a solution of the energy hole including an approximately 0.57 M K.sub.2 CO.sub.3 solution.
In a further embodiment, textural and/or structural promoters are incorporated with the source of energy holes to increase the shrinkage reaction rate.
In one embodiment of the method of operation of the pressurized gas energy reactor, hydrogen can be introduced inside of the first vessel from source 221 under pressure which can be controlled by pressure control means 222. In the case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms, the molecular hydrogen can be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a dissociating material or electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by photon source 205 such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes. The atomic (molecular) hydrogen releases energy as its electrons are stimulated to undergo transitions to lower energy levels by the energy holes. Alternatively, the hydrogen dissociates on the inner surface 240, diffuses though the wall 250 of the first vessel 200 and contacts a source of energy holes on the outer surface 245 or contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes as hydrogen atoms or recombined hydrogen molecules. The atomic (molecular) hydrogen releases energy as its electrons are stimulated to undergo transitions to lower energy levels by the energy holes. The electrocatalytic ion or couple can be regenerated spontaneously or via a regeneration means including heating means 230 and current source 225. The (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen can be removed from vessel 200 and/or vessel 220 by a means to remove the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve means 201 which prevents the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium. To control the reaction rate (the power output), an electric current can be passed through the material having a source of energy holes equal to the resonance shrinkage energy with current source 225, and/or the first reaction vessel 200 and the second reaction vessel 220 are heated by heating means 230. The heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present in at least the first vessel 200, the second vessel 220, and the heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5. The output power can be controlled by a computerized monitoring and control system which monitors the thermistors and controls the means to alter the power output. The (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen can be removed by a means 201 to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.
A method of preparation of the catalytic material of the present invention of catalytic systems that hinge on the transfer of an electron from a cation to another capable of producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms includes the steps of:
Mixing the oxides of the cations with the hydrogen dissociating material.
Thoroughly mixing by repeatedly sintering and pulverizing.
Example of a Ceramic Catalytic Material: Strontium Niobium Oxide (SrNb.sub.2 O.sub.6) on Ni Powder
To prepare the ceramic catalytic material: strontium niobium oxide (SrNb.sub.2 O.sub.6) on Ni powder, 2.5 kg of SrNb.sub.2 O.sub.6 are added to 1.5 kg of -300 mesh Ni powder. The materials are mixed to make a homogeneous mixture. The powder can be sintered or calcinated in an oven at 1600.degree. C. in atmospheric air for 24 hours. The material can be cooled and ground to remove lumps. The material can be re-sintered at 1600.degree. C. in air for another 24 hours. The material can be cooled to room temperature and powderized.
A method of preparation of the catalytic material of the present invention of catalytic systems that hinge on the transfer of an electron from a cation to another capable of producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms includes the steps of:
Dissolving ionic salts of the cations into a solvent. In a preferred embodiment, the ionic salts are dissolved in deionized demineralized water to concentration of 0.3 to 0.5 molar.
Uniformly wetting a dissociation material with the dissolved salt solution.
Draining the excess solution.
Drying the wetted dissociation material in an oven preferably at a temperature of 220.degree. C.
Pulverizing the dried catalytic material into a powder.
Example of a Ionic Catalytic Material: Potassium Carbonate (K.sub.2 CO.sub.3) on Ni Powder
To prepare the ionic catalytic material: potassium carbonate (K.sub.2 CO.sub.3) on Ni powder, a 1 liter solution of 0.5 M K.sub.2 CO.sub.3 in water is poured over 500 grams of -300 mesh Ni powder. The materials are stirred to remove air pockets around the grains of Ni. The excess solution can be drained off. The powder can be dried in an oven at 200.degree. C. If necessary the material can be ground to remove lumps.
Hydrogen Spillover Catalysts
In a preferred embodiment, the source of hydrogen atoms for the catalytic shrinkage reaction comprises a hydrogen spillover catalyst.
A hydrogen spillover catalyst according to the present invention comprises:
A hydrogen dissociation material or means which forms free hydrogen atoms or protons;
A conduit material onto which free hydrogen atoms spill and wh