http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2011-01/italian-scientists-claim-dubious-cold-fusion-breakthrough#comment-98335
01.20.2011
Italian Scientists Claim Dubious Cold Fusion Breakthrough
by
Clay Dillow
Rossi
and Focardi's Cold Fusion Device -- The future of energy
involves tin foil and Dell laptops.
Good science is always rooted in good data, but the most
entertaining science is the stuff that transcends the need for
data by rooting itself fantastical claims and a rejection of the
idea that data is even necessary. So naturally it’s a thrill to
learn that two Italian scientists claim to have successfully
developed a cold fusion reactor that produces 12,400 watts of heat
power per 400 watts of input. Not only that, but they’ll be
commercially available in just three months. Maybe.
Cold fusion is a tricky business — some say a theoretically
implausible business — and exactly zero of the previous claims of
successful cold fusion have proven legitimate (remember when North
Korea developed cold fusion ?
[http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2010-05/north-korea-claims-nuclear-fusion-success-and-they-have-state-media-account-prove-it]
Hypothetically (and broadly) speaking, the process involveS fusing
two smaller atomic nuclei together into a larger nucleus, a
process that releases massive amounts of energy. If harnessed,
cold fusion could provide cheap and nearly limitless energy with
no radioactive byproduct or massive carbon emissions.
Andrea Rossi and Sergio Focardi claim to have done exactly that.
Their reactor, they claim, fuses atomic nuclei of nickel and
hydrogen using about 1,000 watts of electricity which, after a few
minutes, is reduced to an input of just 400 watts. This reaction
purportedly can turn 292 grams of 68 degree water to
turbine-turning steam – a process that would normally require
12,400 watts of electricity, netting them a power gain of about
12,000 watts. They say that commercially-scaled their process
could generate eight units of output per unit of input and would
cost roughly one penny per kilowatt-hour, drastically cheaper than
your average coal plant.
The problem is, they haven’t provided any details on how the
process works. After their paper was rejected by several peer
reviewed scientific journals, it was published in the Journal of
Nuclear Physics—an online journal apparently founded by Rossi and
Focardi. Further, they say they can’t account for how the old
fusion is triggered, fostering deep skepticism from others in the
scientific community.
Based on this lack of even a theoretical basis for the device’s
function, a patent application was rejected. Their credibility
isn’t helped by the fact that Rossi apparently has something of a
rap sheet, which allegedly includes illegally importing gold and
tax fraud.
But the duo does have something going for them in the fact that
they’ve demonstrated their device publicly. In a press conference
last week they fired up their reactor and, if the video evidence
and reports are to be believed, generated some power. Whether or
not they achieved cold fusion is unclear, but other physicists
present confirmed that electricity was produced.
It’s anyone’s guess what’s really going on with this bizarre
story, but should it turn out Rossi and Focardi have achieved true
cold fusion you’ll hear more about it here — and everywhere else.
Pure Energy Systems News
January 17, 2011
Excerpts:
Andrea A. Rossi : Cold Fusion Generator (E-Cat)
Compiled by
Sterling Allen w/ Hank Mills
Eng. Andrea A. Rossi and Professor Sergio Focardi of the
University of Bologna (one of the oldest universities in the
world), have announced to the world that they have a col fusion
device capable of producing more than 10 kilowatts of heat power,
while only consuming a fraction of that. On January 14, 2011, they
gave the Worlds' first public demonstration of a nickel-hydrogen
fusion reactor capable of producing a few kilowatts of thermal
energy. At its peak, it is capable of enerating 15,000 watts with
just 400 watts input required. In a following test the same output
was achieved but with only 80 watts of continual input.
They don't always use the term "cold fusion" do describe the
process, but often refer to it as an amplifier or catalyzer
process.
Focardi states: "Experimentally, we obtained copper; and we
believe that its appearance is due to the fusion of atomic uclei
of nickel and hydrogen, the ingredients that feed our reactor.
Since hydrogen and nickel 'weigh' with less, copper must have
released a lot of energy, since 'nothing is created or destroyed.'
Indeed, the 'Missing Mass' has been transformed intogy, which we
have measured: it is in the order of a few kilowatts, two hundred
times the energy that was the beginning of the reaction."
They also claim to be going into production, with the first units
expected to ship by the second half of October of this year, with
mass production commencing by the end of 2011. The first units
will be used to build a one megawatt plant in Greece. This one
megawatt plant will power a factory that will produce 300,000
ten-kilowatt units a year.
This would become the world's first commercially-ready "cold
fusion" device. Licensees are mentioned, with contracts in the USA
and in Europe. Mass production should escalate in 2-3 years.
Presently, Rossi says they are manufacturing a 1 megawatt plant
composed of 125 modules. These modules should begin shipping by
the end of October. On January 31st, 2011, Rossi wrote: "The cost
to produce the catalyzer is 1 cent per MWh generated; the life
expectancy is 20 years; the cost impact is between 1 and 1.5 cents
per MWh."
In describing the operation of the device, he said: "To start up
the reactor you have just to turn on a switch. The reactor works
with enormous margins of safety, so there is no need of a
particular skill. Just follow the instructions. The refueling is
every 6 months and will be made by our dealers."
According to Rossi, the demonstrated device shown on January 14,
2011 is their industrial product that is claimed to be reliable
and safe. In normal operation it would produce 8 units of output
for every unit of input. Higher levels of output are possible, but
can be dangerous. They will soon start serial production of their
modules. Combining the modules in series and parallel arrays it is
possible to reach every limit of power. The modules are designed
to be connected in series and parallels.
Rossi also says that they have had one reactor that has run
continually for two years, providing heat for a factory. It
reduced the electric bill by 90%. Also, the reactors can self
sustain by turning off the input, but they prefer to have an
input. The device will be scheduled for maintenance every six
months. You control it "just as you turn on and off your
television set."
More than two thousand prototypes were built and destroyed in
refining the design and learning how to control and scale up the
reaction.
Convinced they have already adequately proven this to the
necessary parties, they are not in a hurry to give demonstrations
to curious scientists. On January 21, 2011, Rossi wrote: "Yes
there will be a Scientist talking about us, no demo anyway: no
more demos before the start up of the 1 MW plant."
Is the Rossi energy amplifier the first pico-chemical reactor? -
The nuclear signatures that can be expected when contacting
hydrogen with nickel, were derived from thermal results recently
obtained (Rossi energy amplifier), using the type of reaction
paths proposed as the explanation of the energy produced. The
consequences of proton or neutron capture have been studied. (July
18th, 2010)
How it Works
The Energy Catalyzer works by placing nano to micro sized
particles of nickel powder in a reactor along with pressurized
hydrogen gas and special undisclosed (for proprietary reasons)
catalysts. When the contents of the reactor is heated (using a
series of resistors in the reactor) to approximately 400 to 500
degrees Celsius, nuclear reactions start taking place. The
strength of the reaction can be changed by varying the pressure of
the hydrogen in the reactor. The output energy can be up to 400
times the input energy.
No precious metals or radioactive substances is placed in the
reactor. After the reactor is turned off the reactor can be opened
and no radiation can be detected. The process transmutes nickel
into copper and trace amounts of other elements such as zinc.
The nickel has also apparently gone through one or more special
processes. A few of these special processes are speculated to be:
1) Baking and cleaning to remove oxidation that could "clog" up
the reactive sites on the nickel particles.
2) Bathed in acid or another compound to make the particles more
porous so they can absorb more hydrogen.
3) Embedded in a membrane or ceramic structure.
4) Loaded with hydrogen via electrolysis or some other method.
Rossi's Journal of Nuclear Physics blog shows that scientists are
posting and linking speculation that "hydrinos" (of Blacklight
Power fame) or shrunken hydrogen atoms may be involved in this
cold fusion and process and their formation may be the source of
most of the energy released.
Attributes
Some other technical attributes of the process include:
Regular Ni is used even though other isotopes may provide better
efficiency. They think all the isotopes work to produce the
effect.
For some unknown reason, not all of the Ni in the cell reacts with
the hydrogen to produce energy. The percentage of the Ni that
reacts is very low.
Even though the percentage of the Ni that reacts with hydrogen is
very low one kilogram of nickel powder should deliver 10 kW of
energy for 10,000 hours. The consumption rate of hydrogen and
nickel are 0.1 g of Ni and 0.01 g of H to produce 10 kWh/h. Note
that for every picogram of nickel that is actually fused or reacts
to the hydrogen, much more must be added. Not all the nickel added
will react. So if you add 0.1g of Ni to produce 10kWh/h only a
small fraction of that Ni will actually be utilized. When the
device shuts off due to running out of fuel most of the .1g could
be remaining.
Tungsten is in no way used. However, "other elements" are used.
Radiation is produced. However in the device demonstrated which is
made for commercial use no radiation escapes due to lead
shielding. The fact that radiation is produced is proof of a
nuclear reaction.
In the demonstration device for every unit of input there was
approximately 37 units of output.
A small percentage of the nickel is transmuted into copper. The
amount of copper found in the cell is far greater than the
impurities in the nickel powder. None of this copper is
"unstable."
There is no radioactivity in the cell after it is turned off. No
nuclear "waste."
All of the information needed to successfully replicate a self
sustaining system is in the patent application (which is being
held proprietary presently).
The power density for thermal energy only is 5 liters per
kilowatt.
The hydrogen has to be all hydrogen with no deuterium or heavy
hydrogen. Apparently, any heavy hydrogen stops the reaction.
This current system never goes below 6 times more energy out than
in. During the test it produced 20 times more energy out than in.
In the lab they have done similar tests and obtained 400 times
more out than in, but it produced explosions.
Quote from Ramos on his website:
"Dear Pierre,
Thank you for your important questions, here are the answers:
1- the Ni powder I utilized were pure Ni, no copper . At the end
of the operations in the reactor the percentage of copper was
integrally bound to the amount of energy produced. A charge which
has worked for 6 months, 24 hours per day, at the end had a
percentage of Cu superior to 30%
2- About the Ni isotopes: the isotopes after the operations were
substantially changed in percentage. We are preparing a campaign
of analysys with a Secondary Ions Mass Spectrometer at the
University of Padua (Italy), at the end of which the data will be
published on the Journal Of Nuclear Physics.
Warm Regards,
Andrea
Costs
Rossi estimates that the cost of energy made with this system will
be below 1 cent/kWh, in case of electric power made by means of a
Carnot cycle, and below 1 cent/4,000 M J in case of thermal power
production for heating purposes. That is several times cheaper
than energy from fossil fuel sources such as coal or natural gas.
http://pureenergysystems.com/
Rossi's Self
Sustaining One Megawatt Reactor [ Excerpts ]
by
Hank Mills
A Self Sustaining One Megawatt Reactor
In most of the tests performed on the E-Cat (Energy Catalyzer), a
constant input of energy has been utilized. The reason a constant
input has been used up to this point, is due to the tendency of
the output of the system to increase rapidly when in a self
sustaining mode. If the output cannot be reduced, the system can
go out of control.
Andrea Rossi has stated many times in the past a self sustaining
system is dangerous, and there is a chance of explosions. He
actually indicated that during stress testing of systems he has
witnessed dozens of explosions. In one specific experiment Rossi
has mentioned, an E-Cat was put into self sustain mode, but had to
be turned off after the output exceeded the maximum safe level of
10 kilowatts (in the form of heat). However, now he claims that
these problems are being resolved, and that the one megawatt
reactor will operate in a self sustaining mode with no input
power...
Confirmation the Catalyst and Fuel is Super Cheap
There have been thousands of successful cold fusion
experiments in the past, but the amount of power output was so
small they were not commercially viable. This is not the case
with the E-Cat, because it produces enormous amounts of energy.
Three critical factors make the E-Cat technology produce enough
output power to make it ready for the marketplace. Without them,
the E-Cat technology would be no different than any other cold
fusion system.
- First, the nickel powder is somehow enriched so that it
contains more of two specific isotopes. These are N-62 and N-64.
These two isotopes are the ones that participate in the most
fusion reactions.
- Secondly, the nickel powder is processed in such a way that
tubercles or protrusions form on it. After this processing, the
nickel may resemble filamentary nickel. This may allow for more
reaction sites where the hydrogen can fuse with the
nickel.
- Third, a catalyst is used that helps to break apart the
molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen. We also know that it is
not mixed in with the nickel powder, but is placed in the
reactor afterwards. There is a lot of speculation about what
this catalyst or catalysts might be. Some people speculate it
might be a form of carbon, such as graphite.
In the past, Rossi has stated that the processing of the nickel
powder only increased the cost of it by ten percent. Now, he
states that the ten percent figure includes the cost of the
catalyst. This confirms that the catalyst is super cheap.
The fuel cost of this technology seems to be very low. It really
does seem that the price of enough fuel to power your home for
six months may only be a few dollars. Of course at first there
will be a markup on the fuel until it starts to be mass
manufactured, but even if it is initially sold for ten times
what it cost to manufacture it will still be very low cost...
http://blog.hasslberger.com/2011/02/italian_engineer_announces_com.html
Italian Engineer Announces Cold Fusion Breakthrough
Rossi has been into alternative energy for many years. It was in
the 1970s and 1980s that Rossi was busy building garbage disposal
facilities that burned household garbage and utilized the
recovered heat. During that period, he found out how to not only
recover heat from burning garbage but also to turn garbage into
fuel. His company, Petroldragon, had a valid garbage-to-fuel
technology that could turn household waste into combustible oil,
coal and gas. Production had started and reached some 20 tons of
fuel oil a day in 1989, when corrupt bureaucrats started to
attack.
The first step was to tax his process just as if he was producing
alcohol, making the resulting fuel ridiculously expensive. When he
opposed the unjust tax, the next step was a challenge that proved
more difficult: the bureaucrats asserted that the garbage stocked
and ready to be transformed in his production facilities wasn't
raw material for his process but was an illegal and fraudulent
attempt to hide and "treat toxic garbage" for which he had no
license.
Rossi was imprisoned on trumped up eco-charges for trying to
produce an ecologically sustainable fuel that did not come from
petroleum deposits, and after one of his companies was forced into
bankruptcy, he was again imprisoned for not paying his creditors
... great government support for alternative energy technologies,
one might say. That whole sad story is well documented on Rossi's
website:
http://ingandrearossi.com
- Rossi's website gives his side of the saga of waste-to-energy
problem. The beginning, the media boom around Petroldragon, plans
for the future.
http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroldragon
- Rossi was involved in a waste to energy project, and ended up
serving some jail time in 1995 for conspiracy to engage in tax
fraud for his involvement in a business that was trading precious
materials between Switzerland and Italy. Appeared to be more like
suppression than deserved punishment.
New Energy Times; January 18,
2011 -- Rossi and Focardi LENR Device: Celani Report -
New Energy Times has posted a first-person report from Francesco
Celani, a physicist with the Instituto Nazionale di Fisica
Nucleare, INFN (National Institute of Nuclear Physics). "The
energy gain is a factor of 15-20, which is really large!"
LENR-CANR.org; Jan. 18, 2011
-- Brief Technical Description of the Leonardo Corporation,
University of Bologna, and INFN Scientific Demonstration of the
Andrea Rossi ECat (Energy Catalyzer) Boiler - 14 January
2011:1600-1800, Bologna, Italy.
Cold Fusion Now; June 29, 2011
-- Interviews with Rossi and Xanthoulis - The interview with
Alexandros Xanthoulis revealed some new information. Among the
highlights: The 5 to 30 kW modules are all the same size, the only
difference being the pressure, so they will cost the same. The 1
MW reactor is now being tested, and DGT is working on producing a
3 MW reactor.
Corriere della Sera.it; March,
1995 -- "The Italian succeeded cold fusion"
http://coldfusionnow.wordpress.com/2011/06/22/a-nobel-laureate-speaks-out-on-the-energy-catalyzer/
A Nobel Laureate Speaks Out On The Energy Catalyzer
Defkalion has had units (which they call Hyperions) in continuous
operation for months. When their testing is finished, the results
will be published.
Testing of Hyperion units by Greek government officials took place
the first ten days of July. These tests were to determine the
safety and performance of the units. The protocols used and the
results of these tests should be published, "very soon."
Defkalion has tested self sustaining systems. In these systems,
once the device is brought up to the proper temperature, the input
is cut off and heat continues to be produced.
At this moment, the highest temperature of steam produced by a
Hyperion is 414C. This is not because steam cannot be made hotter,
but because higher temperatures can exceed the specifications of
components.
They have never performed a test in which the output of a Hyperion
was less than 19 times the input. Usually, it is in the range of
20 to 30 times the input.
Although a one megawatt unit will be demonstrated in October,
their highest power device will produce 3.45 megawatts of thermal
energy and fit inside a 20 foot container.
The lead shielding required to block gamma rays has been reduced
to only 3 millimeters.
The maximum safe output from an E-Cat with a reactor vessel
only 50cc in volume is 10 kilowatts.
He has finished constructing all the reactors for the first one
megawatt plant. Now they are being tested with a complex
protocol.
The first application in the USA for the E-Cat will probably be
"feedwater" heaters, that heat the water going into power
plants. By pre-heating the water, less coal or fossil fuels
would need to be burned.
EV World and E-Cat Report Interviews
Although Andrea Rossi frequently states that he is not going to
do any additional interviews until the one megawatt plant is
opened in October, more interviews continue to appear on the
internet. One of these was an audio interview on the EV World
podcast. In this interview, he shared some interesting
information about how his system works, and even compared the
pressure and temperatures to that of a White Dwarf star :
"Yes. To make it extremely simple, what happens is that nickel
has a particularity that protons spread from its surface with
extreme efficiency. And very close to the nucleus, even if
repelled by the so called coulomb barrier forces. And when we in
the reactor inject the hydrogen the protons of hydrogen at high
pressures and temperatures, will go pretty close to the nucleus
of the nickel. And at those points, we have nuclear effects that
produce gamma rays which add more energy and using a particular
system to increase the pressure arriving to extremely high
pressures... similar to ones that happen to be in the White
Dwarf stars. In those situations, it is possible that physically
that so called Gamow Factor, which is a probabilistic
calculation of the coulomb repelling forces, is overcome, and at
that point enough energy is produced to make it worth to be
recorded."
Andrea Rossi also gave an interview with a representative from
the E-Cat Report website. Many interesting comments were made.
The following comment was particularly interesting. Please
realize the following comment was paraphrased by E-Cat
Report.
"The management team of both Defkalion and AmpEnergo will meet on
the 14th July (2011) together with NASA for an important
discussion regarding the research and business development around
the E-Cat. After the initial meeting with NASA, Defkalion GT and
Ampenergo will sit down and develop a joint program for the
introduction of the E-Cat as a main energy source to the
world."...
Clues About The Catalysts
Already from the beginning, Rossi looked at the powder form of the
fuel because he wanted to increase the surface area of the Nickel
so that more entrance points per volume unit for the hydrogen gas
could occur.
Andrea Rossi stresses that, although one might first think "the
finer the better" because the finer the powder the more surface
area per volume you get, this is not the case; because in order to
reach useful reaction rates with hydrogen, the powder needs to
processed in a way that leads to amplified tubercles on the
surface.
The tubercles are essential in order for the reaction rate to
reach levels high enough for the implied total power output per
volume or mass to reach orders of magnitude kW/kg - this level of
power density is required for any useful application of the
process.
Rossi tells that he worked every waking hour for six months
straight, trying dozens of combinations to find the optimal powder
size for the Energy Catalyzer, or E-Cat. He further stresses that
specific data about the final optimal grain size cannot be
revealed, but can tell us that the most efficient grain size is
more in the micrometer range rather than the nanometer range.
Andrea Rossi on the secret
catalyst
In most physics related forums on the internet, physicists are
speculating at this point about what the function of the secret
catalyst or "secret sauce" really is. An earlier popular
speculation was that the "secret catalyst" was used to separate
the Hydrogen molecules into Hydrogen atoms, which are then more
easily absorbed by the Nickel lattice.
Today we are proud to be able to add a new piece of the puzzle to
that discussion by questioning whether the substance is used to
amplify the prominent tubercles on the surface of the grains. This
speculation makes sense since we have been told that both surface
area and surface texture has a big impact on the reaction
frequency.
If the tubercles on the surface did not affect the reaction itself
they would then only affect the loading time of the Hydrogen into
the Nickel lattice and not the reaction rate inside the lattice.
For all Ecatreport.com knows from what Rossi has told us, that
doesn't seem to be the case and a qualified guess would be that
the reaction is most intense at the surface of the powder.
Andrea Rossi is still working on several elements and substances
to improve the catalysts for the Hydrogen-Nickel reaction, and he
has been doing so for the past four, five years. The most
effective catalyst found so far, was at one stage abandoned in the
search for an even more effective one, but was later reinstated
because, overall, it proved to be the most effective one.
It is interesting to hear that Rossi is sharing more
information about the nickel powder and the catalysts. For a
very long time he refused to discuss the catalysts at all,
except to say they are not radioactive, cheap, and commonly
available. Maybe more information about the catalysts will be
revealed in the coming months.
Carbon as a Possible Catalyst
There has been a great deal of speculation on the internet about
the identities of the catalysts. One good place to read such
speculation is on the Vortex-L mailing list. Although there are
many guesses, no one appears to really know without a doubt the
identities of the catalysts. One possibility is that one of the
catalysts is a form of carbon. Here is a post made on Vortex-L
about carbon being a possible catalyst... { not included here ]
Defkalion responded with the following.
We used this presentation template, that you can download from
Microsoft template site, because of the colors. The chemical
formula in the background has nothing to do with our technology.
We use benzene (βενζίνη)-gaz or gasoline (or what ever you call
it) only to run our company cars.
Thank you for your interest and remark.
http://coldfusionnow.wordpress.com/
June 28, 2011
Krivit’s second report: Rossi evades scientific
debate
by
Ivy Matt
For those who were wondering whether New Energy Times editor
Steven Krivit was willing to burn his bridges with Andrea Rossi,
the answer is an apparent “yes”. Krivit’s first report provoked a
heated response from Rossi, who accused him of industrial
espionage on behalf of an Italian competitor. Krivit’s second
report, recently released, will likely do nothing to assuage
Rossi’s feelings.
Krivit’s overall judgment on the E-Cat is that there could be
“something real” about it, but that the “claimed quantities of
excess heat have been exaggerated, possibly by as much as two
orders of magnitude.” Krivit does not explain this claim in detail
in this particular report, however, deferring such technical
details until a later report, but he does summarize his technical
concerns with the testing of Rossi’s device:
1. Analytical error: possible mathematical error based on the
assumptions of the energy capacity of the steam.
2. Procedural error: possible use of an incorrect measurement
instrument.
3. Analytical error: possible failure to correctly interpret a
signal from the experiment that is clearly visible using only the
naked eye that was apparent during the experiments.
Instead, Krivit’s second report is mostly devoted to pointing out
Rossi’s lack of scientific qualifications and what Krivit regards
as his misuse of those who have such qualifications to bolster his
own credibility, while at the same time attempting to evade the
scientific debate that naturally arises as a result of his claims.
In particular, Krivit is frustrated by the unwillingness or
inability of the scientists closest to Rossi to provide specific
details on the results obtained from the E-Cat tests. Rossi, on
the other hand, keeps himself busy responding to questions on his
website, the Journal of Nuclear Physics, but either avoids or
gives evasive answers to questions about results or experimental
design, often simply promising that he will have a 1 MW reactor
available in October, and telling the questioners they will just
have to wait till then. That is his privilege as a businessman and
a private citizen, but Krivit expects more from the scientists
whose expertise he has sought, and who lend him their support.
If Rossi thought Krivit was working on behalf of an “Italian
competitor” before, he will certainly find confirmation for that
suspicion in this report. First, Krivit notes the similarity
between Rossi’s device and that developed by Francesco Piantelli
(a colleague of Rossi’s partner Sergio Focardi) in the ’90s. (The
primary differences are that the E-Cat allegedly uses a catalyst
of some sort, known only to Rossi, and that it uses nickel
in nanopowder form. Piantelli used nickel rods in most of his
experiments, although he did mention the possibility of using
“metallic powder” in his 1995 patent application.) Second, Krivit
reports on the work of three researchers in Naples who have shown
him an experiment — and scientific data — he regards as promising.
Whether these researchers have any connection to Piantelli — or,
indeed, to cold fusion research — is unknown, but Krivit promises
to report on their findings after he is finished with his reports
on the E-Cat.
http://www.journal-of-nuclear-physics.com/files/Is%20the%20Rossi%20energy%20amplifier%20the%20first%20pico-chemical%20reactor.pdf
Is the Rossi
energy amplifier the first pico-chemical reactor?
by
Jacques Dufour
CNAM Laboratoire des sciences nucléaires, 2 rue
Conté 75003 Paris France
Abstract
The nuclear signatures that can be expected when contacting
hydrogen with nickel, were derived from thermal results recently
obtained (Rossi energy amplifier), using the type of reaction
paths proposed as the explanation of the energy produced. The
consequences of proton or neutron capture have been studied. It
was shown that these consequences are not in line with the
experimental observations. A novel tentative explanation is thus
described. Should this explanation be true, it is proposed to
call pico-chemistry the novel field thus opened.
Introduction
In a recent paper [1], it was shown that, if the reaction path
occurring in a Rossi energy amplifier [2], was mainly proton
capture, the lead thickness required to completely suppress the
gamma flux produced, would be in the order of tens of cm. The
lead screen used (2 cm) should thus have resulted in a lethal
gamma dose emitted in the surroundings. Another explanation,
different from proton or neutron capture is thus to be found. In
[3], the concept of pico-chemistry was presented, that could
explain the generation of photons in the range of tens of keV,
thus compatible with the lead screening used in the energy
amplifier.
In chemistry,
compounds are formed by the binding of the components through
their outer electronic shells. Ionic, metallic and covalent
hydrides of metals are known. Thus, Nickel hydride NiH can be
viewed as an hydrogen and a nickel atoms maintained at a few
angstrom distance, through a metallic bound.
In contrast, in a pico-nickel
hydride, a (shrunken) hydrogen atom would be inside the
electronic cortege of the Nickel and bound to the nickel at
close proximity of its nucleus. In [3] a tentative explanation
was given, of the possibility of such an exotic hydride. Another
approach is presented in this paper.
Possible existence of a
small hydrogen-like dipole and reaction with a nickel nucleus
Various concepts
of a shrunken hydrogen atom have been presented. In [4], the
possibility of having bound states of a proton and an electron
with lower radius and higher ionization energy than the usual
Bohr values is claimed. These bound states were called hydrinos
and attributed to the possibility of having fractional values
for the main quantum number of the hydrogen atom. In [5] a
metastable state is justified by the electron spin/proton
nuclear spin interaction being first order in the environment of
a lattice (it is third order in vacuum). This state was called
hydrex and proposed as an explanation for fission-like reaction
occurring in metallic lattices. Finally, the interaction of a
proton and an electron could result in a virtual neutron [6],
that could be captured by and react with the Ni nucleus.
In this paper, the evolution of a virtual neutron like
association between a proton and an electron, in contact with an
atom is examined.
At the surface of various materials (metals, metal oxides, metal
hydrides…), electrons are more or less free to leave the solid
(work function). In an hydrogen environment, it is conceivable
that from time to time a virtual neutron can be formed between
such an electron and a proton [6], with a deficit of energy of
0.781 MeV:
The life time of this virtual
neutron is limited by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation
∆t∆E>h, which sets the maximum distance d it can
travel:
The maximum of d
is thus some 250 fm and the virtual neutron, formed at the
periphery of an atom has hardly any chance to reach the close
vicinity of the nucleus of this atom. It can nevertheless
sufficiently penetrate the outer electronic cortege of the atom
so as to feel the (screened) positive potential of the nucleus
of the atom, when reverting to a proton and an electron. An
electrical dipole is thus formed, which is attracted by the
nucleus of the atom. One can wonder if the resulting effect of
the action of the positive charge of the nucleus will ultimately
end up in the destruction of the dipole, the proton being
rejected to infinite and the electron bound to the nucleus. This
would certainly be the case if the nucleus where not surrounded
by its electronic cortege (Z time ionized nucleus). In the case
of an atom with its electrons, an equilibrium position of the
dipole could be reached, at close vicinity of the nucleus. To
demonstrate the possibility of such a bound state, the complete
Hamiltonian of the system would have to be solved, which is not
possible. A semi-empirical approach has thus been developed, to
reach the orders of magnitude of the characteristics of such a
dipole and its interactions with an atom A. This could be used
as a guide when looking at the experimental results expected in
case of an excess energy measured in the system hydrogen/nickel
(energy of radiations emitted, characteristics of the
by-products).
In order to distinguish this concept of shrunken hydrogen atom
from others, it is proposed to call it Hypole
(Deupole and Tripole being the
2 other isotopes).
Semi empiric description
of the Hypole
Figure 1
gives a description of the Hypole, which is proposed to be
written H
¯Ni when the host atom A is Nickel and its
(possible) bound state with the
Ni atom, a Nickel
pico-hydride NiH
¯Ni.
d is the
distance between the centers of gravity of positive and negative
charges in the hypole.
r is the
distance between the proton and the electron.
R is the
distance between the center of the nucleus of the atom A and the
center of gravity of the hypole.
Z is the
charge number of the atom A
The potential
that the dipole proton/electron feels from A is at first order
(when d/R is small):
During its attraction by A, the
spatial extension of the dipole is limited by the repulsion of
the inner layers of the electrons of A, resulting in a shrinking
of this hydrogen-like object and in a limitation of its
polarization. In order to get first guesstimated values of the
size and energy of the hypole and of the bound state it might
form with A, following assumptions are made:
1. The action of the electronic cortege of A (especially the s
electrons of A) on the dipole and the presence at short distance
of the Z protons of A are equivalent to the attraction of the
electron by the proton in the hypole being multiplied by a
factor K>1. Hence, the (pseudo) coulomb interaction in the
dipole is:
2. d is
small and proportional to R. Hence, d=kR, with k small.
3. The electron of the hypole H¯A cannot be found in
the nucleus of the atom A (competition with the s
electrons of A). Hence, r≤R
With these
assumptions, the Bohr radius of H
¯A would be:
and its energy of
formation:
In a similar way,
the Bohr radius of AH¯A would be:
and its energy of
formation:
with mH being the
mass of the hydrogen atom.
Under assumption 3, the smallest possible bound object AH
¯A
is obtained for
In that case m
eK=m
HKZ.
Expressing the energies as a function of the unknown k, one
gets:
and
finally yielding
the following value for the total energy given by the hypole
formation followed by its binding with A:
The bulk of the energy is coming
from the formation of the Hypole. EH¯A likely to be of
the order of magnitude of the energies that can be found close
to the A nucleus, that is the s electrons energy E^sA.
A guesstimated value of k is thus:
In the case of Nickel and taking
for E^sNi the average value 10.5 keV, the following
guesstimated description of H¯Ni and NiH¯ Ni
is obtained (Table 1):
Properties of the Hypole
The hypole is a picometer size hydrogen-like object. It can
only exist when embedded in the electronic cortege of an atom
A, where its equilibrium position is very close to the nucleus
of A. Its size and energy of formation depends upon A. In the
case of Nickel, the size is some 2 picometer and the energy of
formation round 10 keV. Hence the names and notations
proposed.
The best way for characterizing an hypole, is to measure the
mass of the corresponding A/pico-hydride. In the case of
nickel, following masses are expected, that take into account
the energy of formation (Table 2):
The mass differences given by Table 2 could
be easily detected using a high resolution TOF Mass
Spectrometer on an acidic solution of the nickel pico-hydride
(probably possible see below, chemical properties). SIMS TOF
Mass Spectrometry is not adapted, since the primary ions
energies are of the order of the energy of formation of the
hypole. An ICP TOF Mass Spectrometer would be adapted.
As regards the
chemical properties of NiH¯Ni, they should be close
to the Nickel ones. The outer electronic layers of NiH¯Ni
indeed see the positive charge of the nickel atom, the effect
of the hypole H¯Ni being second order in that
respect. A shift of the characteristic rays given by nickel in
ICP-AOS could be observed.
Finally the radiations emitted during the hypole formation,
would be photons in the 10 keV range, thus completely
suppressed by the 2 cm layer of lead in the energy amplifier.
Faint signals of higher energy photons (annihilation
radiation) could anyhow be detected. They might be the
signature of an inherent instability of the hypole and of the
corresponding pico-hydride, which is discussed now.
Stability of the (nickel) hypole
The nickel hypole is a small object of picometer dimension and
at picometer distance from the nickel nucleus. Its virtual
neutron state may have a non zero probability to penetrate the
nickel nucleus and react with it according to the neutron
capture route developed in [6] and [1]. Most of the gamma
photons resulting from the stabilization of the primary
excited nickel nuclei are of energy higher than 1 MeV [1].
They mainly interact with the lead shield by producing
electron/positron pairs, ultimately yielding the annihilation
radiation. From the experimental observations, the rate of
virtual neutron capture should be very low (some 10^-20 s^-1,
in the experiment 2009(3-5/4-26) presented in [2]).
Conclusions
In this paper, a rough description is given, of a novel
chemical interaction. Orders of magnitudes of the main
characteristics of this still hypothetical interaction are
given.
It is hoped
that this approach will be of help when trying to understand
the thermal results obtained with the energy amplifier.
Should the experimental
results and their interpretation be true, pico-chemistry would
become a reality.
References
[1] J. Dufour “Nuclear signatures to be expected from Rossi
energy amplifier” Journal of nuclear physics May 6th 2010
[2] S. Focardi and A. Rossi “A new energy source from nuclear
fusion” Journal of nuclear physics
[3] J. Dufour “Very sizeable increase of gravity at pico-meter
distance: a novel working hypothesis to explain anomalous heat
effects and apparent transmutations in certain metal hydrogen
systems” J. of condensed matter nuclear science 1 (2007) p
47-61.
[4] R.L. Mills and W.R. Good “A unified theory derived from
first principles” Black light power, Inc. (1992)
[5] J. Dufour, D. Murat, X. Dufour and J. Foos “Experimental
observation of nuclear reactions in palladium and uranium:
possible explanation by the hydrex mode” Fusion Science and
Technology Vol.40-July 2001- p.91-106
[6] L. Daddi “Virtual neutrons in orbital capture” Journal of
nuclear physics March 18, 2010
US
2011005506
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CARRYING OUT NICKEL AND HYDROGEN
EXOTHERMAL REACTION
2011-01-13
Inventor(s): ROSSI ANDREA [IT] + (ROSSI
ANDREA)
Classification: - international: F24J1/00- European: C01B3/00;
C01B6/02; G21B3/00
Also published as: WO 2009125444 // IT MI20080629 // EP 2259998
Abstract -- A method and apparatus for carrying out highly
efficient exothermal reaction between nickel and hydrogen atoms in
a tube, preferably, though not necessary, a metal tube filled by a
nickel powder and heated to a high temperature, preferably, though
not necessary, from 150 to 5000 C are herein disclosed. In the
inventive apparatus, hydrogen is injected into the metal tube
containing a highly pressurized nickel powder having a pressure,
preferably though not necessarily, from 2 to 20 bars.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0001] The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for
carrying out nickel and hydrogen exothermal reactions, and has
been stimulated by the well known requirement of finding energy
sources alternative to fossil sources, to prevent atmospheric
carbon dioxide contents from being unnecessarily increased.
[0002] For meeting the above need non polluting energy sources
should be found which do not involve health risks, are
economically competitive with respect to oil sources susceptible
to be easily discovered and exploited and naturally abundant.
[0003] Many of the above alternative energy sources have already
been explored and operatively tested even on an industrial scale,
and comprise biomasses, solar energy used both for heating and
photovoltaic electric generation purposes, aeolian energy, fuel
materials of vegetable or agricultural nature, geothermal and sea
wave energy and so on.
[0004] A possible alternative to natural oil, is the
uranium-fission nuclear energy. However, yet unresolved problems
affect nuclear energy such as great safety and waste material
processing problems, since, as is well known, radioactive waste
materials remain dangerously active for thousands or millions of
years, with consequent great risks for persons living near
radioactive waste disposal-off places.
[0005] To the above the fact should also be added that, at
present, a nuclear fusion based on a laser actuated inertial
confining method does not allow to make efficient power systems.
[0006] The above drawbacks are also true for deuterium-tritium
fusion processes, as shown by the operating times estimated for
the ITER project, which should within the year 2025 should allow
to construct power systems according to the so-called DEMO project
to make, within the year 2035, the first fusion power station.
[0007] In fact, up to now, the so-called "cold" fusion, after an
early announcement by Fleischmann and Pons in 1989 (M.
Fleischmann, M. Hawkins, S. Pons: Journal Electroanal. Chem.,
261,301-1989), notwithstanding several exploiting attempts on a
world-wise scale, has not provided useful and reliable systems
capable of generating energy for normal, industrial or domestic
applications.
[0008] The most intelligent work performed in the fusion field,
which work has been accurately studied by the present inventor for
practicing his invention, is a study of Prof. Sergio Focardi,
(Dipartimento di Fisica dell'Univerità di Bologna), and Prof.
Francesco Piantelli, (Dipartimento di Fisica dell'Università di
Siena) as disclosed in the following bibliographic documents:
S. Focardi, F. Piantelli: Produzione di energia e reazioni
nucleari in sistemi Ni-H a 400[deg.] C., Atti della Conferenza
Nazionale sulla politica energetica in Italia, Università di
Bologna, 18-19 aprile 2005.
S. Focardi, R. Habel, F. Piantelli: Anomalous heat production in
Ni-H systems, Nuovo Cimento Vol. 107, pp 163-167, 1994
S. Focardi, V. Gabbiani, V. Montalbano, F. Piantelli, S. Veronesi:
Large excess in heat production in Ni-H systems, Nuovo Cimento
Vol. 111 A pp. 1233-1241, 1998
A. Battaglia, L. Daddi, S. Focardi, V. Gabbiani, V. Montalbano, F.
Piantelli, P. G. Sona, S. Veronesi: Neutron emission in Ni-H
systems, Nuovo Cimento Vol. 112 A pp 921-931, 1999
S. Focardi, V. Gabbiani, V. Montalbano. F. Piantelli, S. Veronesi:
On the Ni-H systems, Asti Workshop in Hydrogeldeuterium loaded
metals, pp 35-47, 1997
E. G. Campari, S. Focardi, V. Gabbiani, V. Montalbano. F.
Piantelli, E. Porcu, E. Tosti, S. Veronesi: Ni-H systems,
Proceedings of the 8thConference on Cold Fusion, pp 69-74, 2000.
[0015] The present inventor, moreover, has also accurately studies
the following related patents: U.S. Pat. No. 6,236,225, U.S. Pat.
No. 5,122,054, US-H466, U.S. Pat. No. 4,014,168, U.S. Pat. No.
5,552,155, U.S. Pat. No. 5,195,157, U.S. Pat. No. 4,782,303, U.S.
Pat. No. 4,341,730, US-A-20010024789.
[0016] An analysis of the above mentioned references shows that:
[0017] 1-all experiments performed based on cold fusion have not
permitted to generate power in such an amount to be reliably and
constantly exploited in industrial applications;
[0018] 2-all the uranium based methods and systems have not up to
now solved the problem of safely disposing of nuclear waste
materials;
[0019] 3-all the nuclear fusion based methods and systems have not
been shown as capable of generating significative amounts of
energy while allowing the fusion process to be safely monitored;
[0020] 4-all the magnetic and inertial confining based methods and
systems, such as the plasma fusion method, cannot be properly
economically managed; and
[0021] 5-the catalyzed fusion of negative muons based methods and
systems cannot be used because of the muon short life.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0022] Accordingly, the aim of the present invention is to provide
a method allowing to produce energy in an economic, convenient,
reliable and repetitive manner, without generating radiations and
radioactive waste materials.
[0023] Within the scope of the above mentioned aim, a main object
of the invention is to provide such a method which can be carried
out in small size systems, adapted to be easily controlled and
allowing to heat individual places at an operating cost less than
that of commercially available heating systems.
[0024] According to one aspect of the present invention, the above
mentioned aim and objects, as well as yet other objects, which
will become more apparent hereinafter, are achieved by a method
and apparatus for carrying out a highly efficient exothermal
reaction between nickel atoms and hydrogen atoms, in a tube,
preferably, though not exclusively made of a metal, filled by a
nickel powder and heated to a high temperature preferably, though
not necessarily, from 150 to 500[deg.] C., by injecting hydrogen
into said metal tube said nickel powder being pressurized,
preferably, though not necessarily, to a pressure from 2 to 20
bars.
[0025] In applicant exothermal reaction the hydrogen nuclei, due
to a high absorbing capability of nickel therefor, are compressed
about the metal atom nuclei, while said high temperature generates
internuclear percussions which are made stronger by the catalytic
action of optional elements, thereby triggering a capture of a
proton by the nickel powder, with a consequent transformation of
nickel to copper and a beta+ decay of the latter to a nickel
nucleus having a mass which is by an unit larger than that of the
starting nickel.
[0026] The present inventor believes that in this reaction is
possibly involved a capture of a proton by a nickel nucleus which
is transformed into a copper nucleus with a consequent beta decay
of the formed unstable copper (Cu 59-64) since the produced
thermal energy is larger, as it will be thereinafter demonstrated,
than the energy introduced by the electric resistance.
[0027] It is believed that the nickel nuclei are transformed to
copper since the mass (energy) of the final status (copper
isotope) is less than the overall mass (energy) of the starting
status (nickel isotope+proton).
[0028] The exothermal reaction thereon Applicant's invention is
based differs from those adopted by prior searchers since the
inventor has not tried to demonstrate an emission of elementary
particles supporting a validity of a theory, but he has
exclusively tried to provide an amount of energy larger than the
consumed energy amount, to just achieve a practical method and
apparatus for generating an energy amount larger than the consumed
energy, and this by exploiting nuclear energy generating processes
starting from electrochemical energy.
[0029] Thus, the inventive apparatus has been specifically
designed for producing the above mentioned energy in a reliable,
easily controllable, safe, repeatable manner, for any desired
applications.
[0030] In particular, the inventive apparatus is coated by boron
layers and lead plates both for restraining noxious radiations and
transforming them into energy, without generating residue
radiations and radioactive materials.
[0031] In this connection it is pointed out that all prior
attempts to generate like types of energy, have brought to small
energy amounts generating prototypes not suitable for a safe
industrial use, because of the theoretical nature of the performed
searches.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0032] Thus, the aim of the present invention is to provide an
energy generating apparatus adapted to operate in a reliable and
repeatable manner and including a plurality of series and parallel
connectable apparatus modules, thereby generating an impressively
high energy amount by so bombarding a nickel atom by a hydrogen
atom, to provide a large atomic mass loss copper atom to be
transformed into energy, based on the Einstein's equation, plus a
beta decay energy of the radioactive copper atoms.
[0033] The following discussion may be considered as valid for
some (radioactive) Cu isotopes, but not for the two stable copper
isotopes (63Cu and 65Cu) which do not decay.
[0034] As the copper atom decays, an energy emitting positive beta
decay occurs, according to the following equations:
[0000]
P=N+<e>++v,
[0000] where
[0000]
P=proton
[0000]
N=neutron
[0000]
E<+>=positron
[0000]
v=neutrino
[0035] The positron forms the electron antiparticle, and hence, as
positrons impact against the nickel electrons, the
electron-positron pairs are annihilated, thereby generating a huge
amount of energy.
[0036] In fact, few grams of Ni and H would produce an energy
amount equivalent to that of thousands oil tons, as it will become
more apparent hereinafter, without pollutions, greenhouse effects,
or carbon dioxide increases, nuclear and other waste materials,
since the radioactive copper isotopes produced in the process will
decay to stable nickel isotopes by beta+processes, in a very short
time.
[0037] For clearly understanding the following detailed discussion
of the apparatus, it is necessary to at first consider that for
allowing nickel to be transformed into stable copper, it is
necessary to respect the quantic laws. Accordingly, it is
indispensable to use, for the above mentioned exothermal
reactions, a nickel isotope having a mass number of 62, to allow
it to transform into a stable copper isotope 62. All the other Ni
isotopes, on the other hand, will generate unstable Cu, and,
accordingly, a beta decay.
[0038] Considering that about 10<6 >tons nickel for year are
produced through the world and since, as it will be disclosed
hereinafter in Table 1, 1 g nickel would generate an energy amount
equivalent to that produced by 517 tons oil, thus the yearly
produced nickel amount, assuming that only 1/10,000 generates
nuclear processes, will provide
1,000,000,000,000*517/10000=51,700,000,000 (oil equivalent) ton
per year.
[0039] And this without considering the fact that the yearly
nickel production could be easily increased, depending on demand,
and that, like mineral oil, nickel can be recovered and remelted
from nickel scraps of steelwork and electronic applications.
[0040] Actually, nickel is one of the most abundant metals of the
Earth crust.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0041] Further characteristics and advantages of the present
invention will become more apparent hereinafter from the following
detailed disclosure of a preferred, though not exclusive,
embodiment of the invention, which is illustrated, by way of an
indicative, but not limitative, example, in the accompanying
drawings, where:
FIG. 1 is a constructional
diagram of the apparatus according to the present invention;
FIG. 2 is a picture, taken
by a 1.400* electronic microscope, showing the nickel powder (on a
1.400* scale), withdrawn by the apparatus;
FIGS. 3 and 4 are
electronic microscope diagrams related to the powder atomic
composition, at the two points shown by the arrows in FIG. 2.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED
EMBODIMENT
[0045] With reference to the number references of the above
mentioned figures, the apparatus according to the present
invention comprises an electric resistance 1, enclosed in a metal
tube 2, further including therein a nickel powder 3.
[0046] A solenoid valve 4 adjusts the pressure under which
hydrogen 5 is introduced into the metal tube.
[0047] Both the temperature generated by the electric resistance
or resistor and the hydrogen injection pressure can be easily
adjusted either to constant or pulsating values.
[0048] More specifically, the electric resistance, or other heat
source, is switched off as the exothermal reaction generating
energizing status is triggered. A thermostat will hold said heat
source operating, depending on the temperature in the circuit.
[0049] The assembly comprising said electric resistance and nickel
holding copper tube is shielded from the outer environment by
using, respectively from the inside to the outside:
[0050] a) a jacket 7 including water and boron, or only boron
[0051] b) a further lead jacket 8, which, optionally, though not
necessarily, may be coated by a steel layer 9.
[0052] The above mentioned coatings are so designed as to restrain
all radiations emitted by the exothermal reaction and transform
said radiation into thermal energy.
[0053] The heat generated by the particle decay and nuclear
transformations will heat the primary fluid, comprising borated
water, thereby said primary fluid, in turn, will exchange heat
with the secondary circuit, in turn heated by said primary fluid
and conveying the produced thermal energy to desired applications,
such as electric power, heating, mechanical energy, and so on.
[0054] In the absence of a primary fluid, the fluid to be heated
will exchange heat directly with the lead and steel jacket.
[0055] According to a further embodiment of the invention, the
apparatus further comprises the following features.
[0056] Nickel is coated in a copper tube 100, including a heating
electric resistance 101, adjusted and controlled by a controlling
thermostat (not shown) adapted to switch off said resistance 101
as nickel is activated by hydrogen contained in a bottle 107.
[0057] A first steel-boron armored construction 102, coated by a
second lead armored construction 103, protect both the copper
tube, the hydrogen bottle connection assembly 106, and the
hydrogen bottle or cylinder 107, thereby restraining radiations
through the overall radiation life, allowing said radiations to be
transformed into thermal energy.
[0058] On the outside of the lead armored construction, the copper
reactor cooling water, circulates through a steel outer pipe
assembly 105, and this conveyed to thermal energy using devices.
[0059] The above disclosed prototype can also be used as a heating
module which, in a series and/or parallel coupling relationship
with other like modules, will provide a basic core desired size
and power heating systems.
[0060] A practical embodiment of the inventive apparatus,
installed on Oct. 16, 2007, is at present perfectly operating 24
hours per day, and provides an amount of heat sufficient to heat
the factory of the Company EON of via Carlo Ragazzi 18, at Bondeno
(Province of Ferrara).
[0061] For better understanding the invention, the main components
of the above mentioned apparatus have been schematically shown in
Table 2.
[0062] The above mentioned apparatus, which has not been yet
publicly disclosed, has demonstrated that, for a proper operation,
the hydrogen injection must be carried out under a variable
pressure.
[0063] The electric resistance temperature controlling thermostat
has been designed to switch off said electric resistance after 3-4
hours of operation, thereby providing self-supplied system,
continuously emitting thermal energy in an amount larger than that
initially generated by said electric resistance, which mode of
operation is actually achieved by an exothermal reaction.
[0064] As it will be shown in a detailed manner in the following
Table 1, it is possible to calculate that, supposing a full
transformation, a mole, that is 58 g nickel, generate the same
amount of energy obtained by burning about 30,000 tons of oil.
[0065] FIGS. 2-5 show data measured on Jan. 30, 2008 which
basically demonstrate that the invention actually provides a true
nuclear cold fusion.
[0066] The photo of FIG. 2, (obtained by a 1.400* electronic
microscope) shows the nickel powder on a 1.400* scale, as
withdrawn from the apparatus: in particular said photo clearly
shows the flake granules, greatly promoting an absorption of the
hydrogen atoms by the nickel nuclei.
[0067] The two arrows in the figure show the two positions of the
powder sample thereon the electronic microscope tests for
detecting the powder atomic composition have been carried out.
[0068] The two graphs of FIGS. 3 and 4 have been made by the
electronic microscope of Dipartimento di Fisica dell'Università di
Bologna, under the supervision of Prof. Sergio Focardi, on Jan.
30, 2008, and are related to the powder atomic composition at the
two above points of FIG. 2.
[0069] In particular, said graphs clearly show that zinc is
formed, whereas zinc was not present in the nickel powder
originally loaded into the apparatus said zinc being actually
generated by a fusion of a nickel atom and two hydrogen atoms.
[0070] This demonstrates that, in addition to fusion, the
inventive reaction also provides a nickel nucleus fission
phenomenon generating lighter stable atoms.
[0071] Moreover, it has been found that, after having generated
energy the used powders contained both copper and lighter than
nickel atoms (such as sulphur, chlorine, potassium, calcium).
[0072] This demonstrate that, in addition to fusion, also a nickel
nucleus fission phenomenon generating lighter stable atoms occurs.
[0073] It has been found that the invention fully achieves the
intended aim and objects.
TABLE 1
[0074] Determining the energy produced by a nickel mol.
[0075] 1 nickel mol=58 g
[0076] Avogadro number 6.022*10<23 >mol<-1>=number of
nickel atoms in 58 g nickel.
[0077] The energy generated in each hydrogen capture process has
been evaluated (for each nickel isotope) from the difference
between the initial mass (nickel+hydrogen) and the reaction end
product mass.
[0078] A reasonable estimate, considering the different values for
the different isotopes, is 10 MeV electron (a MeV corresponds to a
million electron-volts and is the energy measuring unit, as
conventionally used in nuclear physics).
[0079] Since 1 Mev is equivalent to a variation of mass of
1.78*10<-30 >kg, the mass variation corresponding to an
energy emission of 10 Mev is 1.78*10<-29 >kg.
[0080] The mass loss corresponding to a transformation of an
entire Ni mol can be calculated by multiplying the Avogadro number
(6.022*10<23>) time the mass variation of the single
reaction.
[0081] Thus is obtained (for 58 g Ni)
[0082] M=(6.022*10<23>)*1.7.8*10<-29 >kg=1.07*10<-5
>kg
[0083] From the Einstein equation we have
[0084] E=mc<2 >where c is the light speed c=3*10<8
>m/s.
[0085] Thus, by replacing:
[0086] J=1.07*10<-5>*(3*10<8>)<2>=9.63*10<11
>J which can be approximated to 0.3*10<9 >kcal (which can
be approximated by defect to reserve).
[0087] This is an energy equivalent to about 30,000 ton oil
considering a pci of 10,000 kcal/kg for mineral oil; thus, 58 g
nickel will generate the same energy as that provided by 30,000
ton oil, that is 517 tons/gram.
TABLE 2
[0088] List of materials used for making prototypes for
experimentally testing the inventive apparatus
[0089] Electric resistance: Frei, Brescia
[0090] Thermoadjuster: Pic 16-cod. 1705-Frei
[0091] Lead shields: Picchi Srl-Brugherio (Milan)
[0092] Hydrogen: Linde Gas Italia, Arluno (Milan)
[0093] Pressure reducer: Linde Gas Italia
[0094] Powder nickel: Gerli Metalli-Milan
[0095] Boron: Danilo Dell'Amore Srl-Bologna
[0096] Copper tube: Italchimici-Antezzate (Brescia)
[0097] Laser beam temperature measuring device: Raytheon, USA
[0098] Pressure gauge: Elaborazione-Dipartimento di
Fisica-Università degli Studi di Bologna
[0099] Neutron measuring device: Elaborazione-Dipartimento di
Fisica-Università degli Studi di Bologna
[0100] Chemical-physical analyses:-Dipartimento di
Fisica-Università degli Studi Bologna.
