Want to Colonize Mars? Aerogel could help us farm and survive on Mars “in our lifetimes”

‘Aerogel’ is a broad term used to talk about an extraordinary group of materials that have been used since the 1960s in space travel but are now finding uses across a whole range of industries. ‘Aerogel’ is not a specific mineral or material with a set chemical formula-rather, the term is used to encompass all materials with a specific geometrical structure. This structure is an extremely porous, solid foam, with high connectivity between branched structures of a few nanometres across. Though aerogel is technically a foam, it can take many different shapes and forms. The majority of aerogel is composed of silica, but carbon, iron oxide, organic polymers, semiconductor nanostructures, gold and copper can also form aerogel. However, within the aerogel structure, very little is solid material, with up to 99.8% of the structure consisting of nothing but air. This unique composition gives aerogel an almost ghostly appearance; hence it is often referred to as ‘frozen smoke’.

Fouad Sabry is the former Regional Head of Business Development for Applications at Hewlett Packard (HP) for Southern Europe, Middle East, and Africa. Fouad has received his Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) of Computer Systems and Automatic Control, dual master’s degrees, (1) Master of Business Administration (MBA) and (2) Master of Management in Information Technology (MMIT), from University of Melbourne (MoU) in Australia. Fouad has more than 25 years of experience in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), working in local, regional, and international companies, such as Vodafone and International Business Machines (IBM). Currently, Fouad is an entrepreneur, author, futurist, focused on Emerging Technologies, and Industry Solutions, and founder of One Billion Knowledgeable (1BK) community.

Aerogel

Other Books by The Author

1 - Plasma Propulsion

2 - Pulse Detonation Engine

3 - Agricultural Robotics

4 - Closed Ecological Systems

5 - Cultured Meat

6 - Vertical Farming

7 - Autonomous Vehicles

8 - Autonomous Drones

9 - Autonomous Robotics

10 - Autonomous Weapons

11 - Arcology

12 - 4D Printing

13 - Domed City

14 - Distributed Ledger

15 - Digital Currency

16 - Decentralized Finance

17 - Smart Machines

18 - Aerogel

19 - Amorphous Metal

20 - Bioplastic

21 - Conductive Polymer

22 - Cryogenic Treatment

23 - Dynamic Armour

24 - Fullerene

25 - Graphene

26 - Lab on a Chip

27 - High Temperature Superconductivity

28 - Magnetic Nanoparticles

29 - Magnetorheological Fluid

30 - Microfluidics

31 - Superfluidity

32 - Metamaterial

33 - Metal Foam

34 - Multi Function Structure

35 - Nanomaterials

36 - Programmable Matter

37 - Quantum Dot

38 - Silicene

39 - Superalloy

40 - Synthetic Diamond

41 - Time Crystal

42 - Translucent Concrete

43 - Brain Computer Interface

44 - Swarm Intelligence

Series by The Author

Emerging Technologies in Aerospace

1 - Plasma Propulsion

2 - Pulse Detonation Engine

Emerging Technologies in Agriculture

1 - Agricultural Robotics

2 - Closed Ecological Systems

3 - Cultured Meat

4 - Vertical Farming

Emerging Technologies in Autonomous Things

1 - Autonomous Vehicles

2 - Autonomous Drones

3 - Autonomous Robotics

4 - Autonomous Weapons

Emerging Technologies in Construction

1 - Arcology

2 - 4D Printing

3 - Domed City

Emerging Technologies in Finance

1 - Distributed Ledger

2 - Digital Currency

3 - Decentralized Finance

Emerging Technologies in Information Technology

1 - Smart Machines

Emerging Technologies in Materials Science

1 - Aerogel

2 - Amorphous Metal

3 - Bioplastic

4 - Conductive Polymer

5 - Cryogenic Treatment

6 - Dynamic Armour

7 - Fullerene

8 - Graphene

9 - Lab on a Chip

10 - High Temperature Superconductivity

11 - Magnetic Nanoparticles

12 - Magnetorheological Fluid

13 - Microfluidics

14 - Superfluidity

15 - Metamaterial

16 - Metal Foam

17 - Multi Function Structure

18 - Nanomaterials

19 - Programmable Matter

20 - Quantum Dot

21 - Silicene

22 - Superalloy

23 - Synthetic Diamond

24 - Time Crystal

25 - Translucent Concrete

Emerging Technologies in Neuroscience

1 - Brain Computer Interface

Emerging Technologies in Robotics

1 - Swarm Intelligence

One Billion Knowledgeable

Aerogel

Want to Colonize Mars? Aerogel could help us farm and survive on Mars “in our lifetimes”

Fouad Sabry

Copyright

Aerogel Copyright © 2021 by Fouad Sabry. All Rights Reserved.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the author. The only exception is by a reviewer, who may quote short excerpts in a review.

Cover designed by Fouad Sabry.

This book is a work of fiction. Names, characters, places, and incidents either are products of the author’s imagination or are used fictitiously. Any resemblance to actual persons, living or dead, events, or locales is entirely coincidental.

Bonus

You can send an email to 1BKOfficial.Org+Aerogel@gmail.com with the subject line “Aerogel: Want to Colonize Mars? Aerogel could help us farm and survive on Mars “in our lifetimes””, and you will receive an email which contains the first few chapters of this book.

Fouad Sabry

Visit 1BK website at

www.1BKOfficial.org

Preface

Why did I write this book?

The story of writing this book started on 1989, when I was a student in the Secondary School of Advanced Students.

It is remarkably like the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) Schools, which are now available in many advanced countries.

STEM is a curriculum based on the idea of educating students in four specific disciplines — science, technology, engineering, and mathematics — in an interdisciplinary and applied approach. This term is typically used to address an education policy or a curriculum choice in schools. It has implications for workforce development, national security concerns and immigration policy.

There was a weekly class in the library, where each student is free to choose any book and read for 1 hour. The objective of the class is to encourage the students to read subjects other than the educational curriculum.

In the library, while I was looking at the books on the shelves, I noticed huge books, total of 5,000 pages in 5 parts. The books name is “The Encyclopedia of Technology”, which describes everything around us, from absolute zero to semiconductors, almost every technology, at that time, was explained with colorful illustrations and simple words. I started to read the encyclopedia, and of course, I was not able to finish it in the 1-hour weekly class.

So, I convinced my father to buy the encyclopedia. My father bought all the technology tools for me in the beginning of my life, the first computer and the first technology encyclopedia, and both have a great impact on myself and my career.

I have finished the entire encyclopedia in the same summer vacation of this year, and then I started to see how the universe works and to how to apply that knowledge to everyday problems.

My passion to the technology started mor than 30 years ago and still the journey goes on.

This book is part of “The Encyclopedia of Emerging Technologies” which is my attempt to give the readers the same amazing experience I had when I was in high school, but instead of 20th century technologies, I am more interested in the 21st century emerging technologies, applications, and industry solutions.

“The Encyclopedia of Emerging Technologies” will consist of 365 books, each book will be focused on one single emerging technology. You can read the list of emerging technologies and their categorization by industry in the part of “Coming Soon”, at the end of the book.

365 books to give the readers the chance to increase their knowledge on one single emerging technology every day within the course of one year period.

Introduction

How did I write this book?

In every book of “The Encyclopedia of Emerging Technologies”, I am trying to get instant, raw search insights, direct from the minds of the people, trying to answer their questions about the emerging technology.

There are 3 billion Google searches every day, and 20% of those have never been seen before. They are like a direct line to the people thoughts.

Sometimes that’s ‘How do I remove paper jam’. Other times, it is the wrenching fears and secret hankerings they would only ever dare share with Google.

In my pursuit to discover an untapped goldmine of content ideas about “Aerogel”, I use many tools to listen into autocomplete data from search engines like Google, then quickly cranks out every useful phrase and question, the people are asking around the keyword “Aerogel”.

It is a goldmine of people insight, I can use to create fresh, ultra-useful content, products and services. The kind people, like you, really want.

People searches are the most important dataset ever collected on the human psyche. Therefore, this book is a live product, and constantly updated by more and more answers for new questions about “Aerogel”, asked by people, just like you and me, wondering about this new emerging technology and would like to know more about it.

The approach for writing this book is to get a deeper level of understanding of how people search around “Aerogel”, revealing questions and queries which I would not necessarily think off the top of my head, and answering these questions in super easy and digestible words, and to navigate the book around in a straightforward way.

So, when it comes to writing this book, I have ensured that it is as optimized and targeted as possible. This book purpose is helping the people to further understand and grow their knowledge about “Aerogel”. I am trying to answer people’s questions as closely as possible and showing a lot more.

It is a fantastic, and beautiful way to explore questions and problems that the peoples have and answer them directly, and add insight, validation, and creativity to the content of the book – even pitches and proposals. The book uncovers rich, less crowded, and sometimes surprising areas of research demand I would not otherwise reach. There is no doubt that, it is expected to increase the knowledge of the potential readers’ minds, after reading the book using this approach.

I have applied a unique approach to make the content of this book always fresh. This approach depends on listening to the people minds, by using the search listening tools. This approach helped me to:

Meet the readers exactly where they are, so I can create relevant content that strikes a chord and drives more understanding to the topic.

Keep my finger firmly on the pulse, so I can get updates when people talk about this emerging technology in new ways, and monitor trends over time.

Uncover hidden treasures of questions need answers about the emerging technology to discover unexpected insights and hidden niches that boost the relevancy of the content and give it a winning edge.

Stop wasting time on gutfeel and guesswork about the content wanted by the readers and fill the book content with what the people need and say goodbye to the endless content ideas based on speculations.

Make solid decisions, and take fewer risks, to get front row seats to what people want to read and want to know — in real time — and use search data to make bold decisions, about which topics to include and which topics to exclude.

Streamline my content production to identify content ideas without manually having to sift through individual opinions to save days and even weeks of time.

It is wonderful to help the people to increase their knowledge in a straightforward way by just answering their questions.

I think the approach of writing of this book is unique as It collates, and tracks the important questions being asked by the readers on search engines.

Acknowledgments

Writing a book is harder than I thought and more rewarding than I could have ever imagined. None of this would have been possible without the work completed by prestigious researchers, and I would like to acknowledge their efforts to increase the knowledge of the public about this emerging technology.

Dedication

To the enlightened, the ones who see things differently, and want the world to be better -- they are not fond of the status quo or the existing state. You can disagree with them too much, and you can argue with them even more, but you cannot ignore them, and you cannot underestimate them, because they always change things... they push the human race forward, and while some may see them as the crazy ones or amateur, others see genius and innovators, because the ones who are enlightened enough to think that they can change the world, are the ones who do, and lead the people to the enlightenment.

Epigraph

‘Aerogel’ is a broad term used to talk about an extraordinary group of materials that have been used since the 1960s in space travel but are now finding uses across a whole range of industries. ‘Aerogel’ is not a specific mineral or material with a set chemical formula-rather, the term is used to encompass all materials with a specific geometrical structure. This structure is an extremely porous, solid foam, with high connectivity between branched structures of a few nanometres across. Though aerogel is technically a foam, it can take many different shapes and forms. The majority of aerogel is composed of silica, but carbon, iron oxide, organic polymers, semiconductor nanostructures, gold and copper can also form aerogel. However, within the aerogel structure, very little is solid material, with up to 99.8% of the structure consisting of nothing but air. This unique composition gives aerogel an almost ghostly appearance; hence it is often referred to as ‘frozen smoke’.

Table of Contents

Aerogel

Other Books by The Author

Series by The Author

Aerogel

Copyright

Bonus

Preface

Introduction

Acknowledgments

Dedication

Epigraph

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Aerogel

Chapter 2: Nanogel

Chapter 3: Carbon nanofoam

Chapter 4: Fogbank

Chapter 5: Silica gel

Chapter 6: Materials science

Chapter 7: Materials science in science fiction

Epilogue

About the Author

Coming Soon

Appendices: Emerging Technologies in Each Industry

Chapter 1: Aerogel

A block of aerogel in a hand

IUPAC definition

Aerogel: Gel comprising a microporous solid in which the dispersed phase is a gas.

Note 1: Aerogels include microporous silica, microporous glass, and zeolites. Note 2: Corrected from ref., where the definition is a repetition of the wrong definition of a gel followed by an oblique reference to the structure's porosity.

Aerogel is a synthetic porous lightweight material formed from a gel in which the liquid component of the gel has been replaced with a gas without causing the gel structure to collapse significantly. As a result, the solid has an exceptionally low density and thermal conductivity. Because of its translucent nature and the way light scatters through the substance, it has earned the nicknames frozen smoke, solid smoke, solid air, solid cloud, and blue smoke. Silica aerogels have the sensation of fragile expanded polystyrene, whilst other polymer-based aerogels have the feel of stiff foams. Aerogels can be created from a wide range of chemical substances.

Samuel Stephens Kistler invented aerogel in 1931 as a consequence of a wager with Charles Learned over who could replace the liquid in "jellies" with gas without causing shrinkage.

Aerogels are created via supercritical drying or freeze-drying the liquid component of a gel. This permits the liquid to be gently evaporated without causing the solid matrix in the gel to collapse due to capillary action, as would occur with traditional evaporation. Silica gels were used to create the first aerogels. Kistler's following research focused on alumina, chromia, and tin dioxide aerogels. Carbon aerogels were created for the first time in the late 1980s.

Properties

A flower is suspended over a Bunsen burner flame on a piece of aerogel. The flower is insulated from the flame by the use of aerogel, which has great insulating characteristics.

Despite their name, aerogels are solid, rigid, and dry materials with physical features that do not resemble gels: the name comes from the fact that they are produced from gels. Pressing lightly on an aerogel usually leaves no trace; pressing more forcibly leaves a lasting indentation. Extremely forceful pressing will result in a catastrophic collapse in the sparse structure, causing it to shatter like glass (a feature called as friability), while more recent variants do not suffer from this. Despite the fact that it is prone to shattering, it is structurally quite sturdy. The dendritic microstructure, in which spherical particles of average size 2–5 nm are bonded together to form clusters, is responsible for its exceptional load-bearing qualities. These clusters combine to form a three-dimensional highly porous structure of nearly fractal chains with pores less than 100 nm in size. During the production process, the average size and density of the pores can be adjusted.

Aerogel is a 99.8 percent air-based substance. Aerogels feature a porous solid network that incorporates air pockets, with the air pockets occupying the majority of the material's area. Aerogel is almost weightless due to a lack of solid substance.

Aerogels are good thermal insulators because they virtually completely exclude two of the three heat transmission methods: conduction (they are largely made of insulating gas) and convection (the microstructure prevents net gas movement). Because they are nearly entirely composed of gases, which are poor heat conductors, they are good conductive insulators. (Silica aerogel is particularly effective as an insulator since silica is also a poor conductor of heat; metallic or carbon aerogels, on the other hand, are less effective.) Because air cannot circulate through the lattice, they are effective convective inhibitors. Because infrared radiation (which transmits heat) flows through aerogels, they are poor radiative insulators.

Aerogel feels dry and works as a strong desiccant due to its hygroscopic nature. People who work with aerogel for a lengthy period of time should wear gloves to avoid the emergence of dry brittle areas on their skin.

Rayleigh scattering of shorter wavelengths of visible light by the nano-sized dendritic structure accounts for the modest hue. This gives it a smokey blue appearance against dark backgrounds and a yellowish appearance against bright backgrounds.

Aerogels are hydrophilic by nature, and when they absorb moisture, they normally undergo structural changes such as contraction and deterioration; however, degradation can be avoided by making them hydrophobic through a chemical treatment. Aerogels with hydrophobic interiors degrade more slowly than aerogels with simply an outside hydrophobic layer, especially if a break penetrates the surface.

Knudsen effect

Aerogels may have a thermal conductivity smaller than that of the gas they contain. This is caused by the Knudsen effect, a reduction of thermal conductivity in gases when the size of the cavity encompassing the gas becomes comparable to the mean free path. Effectively, the cavity restricts the movement of the gas particles, decreasing the thermal conductivity in addition to eliminating convection. For example, thermal conductivity of air is about 25 mW·m⁻¹·K⁻¹ at STP and in a large container, but decreases to about 5 mW·m⁻¹·K⁻¹ in a pore 30 nanometers in diameter.

Structure

The aerogel structure is the outcome of a sol-gel polymerization, which occurs when monomers (simple molecules) mix with other monomers to generate a sol, or a substance composed of bonded, cross-linked macromolecules with liquid solution deposits among them. When the material is heated to a certain temperature, the liquid evaporates, leaving behind the bonded, cross-linked macromolecule frame. As a result of the polymerization and critical heating, a material with a porous strong structure known as aerogel is created. Synthesis variations can affect the surface area and pore size of the aerogel. The smaller the pore size, the more likely the aerogel will fracture.

Waterproofing

Aerogel particles range in size from 2 to 5 nm. The surface of the aerogel will have a high concentration of hydroxyl groups after the manufacturing procedure. When the aerogel is placed in water, the hydroxyl groups might trigger a powerful reaction, leading it to dissolve catastrophically. One method for waterproofing the hydrophilic aerogel is to soak it in a chemical base that replaces the surface hydroxyl groups (–OH) with non-polar groups (–OR), a procedure that works best when R is an aliphatic group.

Porosity of aerogel

The three main methods for determining the porosity of aerogel are gas adsorption, mercury porosimetry, and scattering method. Nitrogen at its boiling point is adsorbed into the aerogel sample during gas absorption. The amount of gas adsorbed is determined by the size of the pores in the sample as well as the partial pressure of the gas relative to its saturation pressure. The volume of gas adsorbed is calculated using the Brunauer, Emmit, and Teller formula (BET), which yields the sample's specific surface area. The pore size distribution of the sample is given by the Kelvin equation at high partial pressure during adsorption/desorption. The mercury is forced into the aerogel porous system to determine the size of the pores in mercury porosimetry, but this method is inefficient because the solid frame of the aerogel will collapse due to the high compressive force. The angle-dependent deflection of photons within the aerogel sample is used in the scattering method. Solid particles or pores might be used as the sample. The radiation penetrates the material, determining the fractal architecture of the aerogel pore network. X-rays and neutrons are the best radiation wavelengths to use. Aerogel is also an open porous network: the difference between an open porous network and a closed porous network is that in an open porous network, gases can enter and leave the substance freely, whereas a closed porous network traps the gases within the material, forcing them to stay within the pores. Because of their high porosity and surface area, silica aerogels can be used in a wide range of environmental filtration applications.

Materials

A 2.5 kg brick is supported by a piece of aerogel with a mass of 2 g.

Silica Aerogel

Silica aerogel is the most common type of aerogel, and the primary type in use or study. It is silica-based and can be derived from silica gel or by a modified Stober process. The lowest-density silica nanofoam weighs 1,000 g/m³, which is the evacuated version of the record-aerogel of 1,900 g/m³. The density of air is 1,200 g/m³ (at 20 °C and 1 atm). As of 2013, aerographene had a lower density at 160 g/m³, or 13% the density of air at room temperature.

The silica forms into three-dimensional, interwoven clusters that account for barely 3% of the total volume. As a result, conduction through the solid is quite poor. The remaining 97 percent of the volume is made up of incredibly small nanopores filled with air. Because there is little space for air to travel, both convection and gas-phase conduction are inhibited.

Silica aerogel has a high optical transmission of 99 percent and a low refractive index of 1.05 as well. It is particularly resistant to high power input beams in the continuous wave regime and exhibits no boiling or melting events. This characteristic enables the investigation of high-intensity nonlinear waves in the presence of disorder in regimes normally inaccessible to liquid materials, making it an appealing material for nonlinear optics.

This aerogel has remarkable thermal insulative properties, having an extremely low thermal conductivity: from 0.03 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹ in atmospheric pressure down to 0.004 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹ in modest vacuum, which correspond to R-values of 14 to 105 (US customary) or 3.0 to 22.2 (metric) for 3.5 in (89 mm) thickness. For comparison, typical wall insulation is 13 (US customary) or 2.7 (metric) for the same thickness. Its melting point is 1,473 K (1,200 °C; 2,192 °F). It is also worth noting that even lower conductivities have been reported for experimentally produced monolithic samples in the literature, reaching 0.009 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹ at 1atm.

Until 2011, silica aerogel held 15 Guinness World Records for material qualities, including greatest insulator and lowest-density solid, however it was dethroned from the latter by the even lighter materials aerographite in 2012 and aerographene in 2013.

Carbon

Carbon aerogels are composed of particles with sizes in the nanometer range, covalently bonded together. They have very high porosity (over 50%, with pore diameter under 100 nm) and surface areas ranging between 400 and 1,000 m²/g. They are often manufactured as composite paper: non-woven paper made of carbon fibers, impregnated with resorcinol–formaldehyde aerogel, and pyrolyzed. Depending on the density, carbon aerogels may be electrically conductive, making composite aerogel paper useful for electrodes in capacitors or deionization electrodes. Due to their extremely high surface area, carbon aerogels are used to create supercapacitors, with values ranging up to thousands of farads based on a capacitance density of 104 F/g and 77 F/cm³. Carbon aerogels are also extremely "black" in the infrared spectrum, reflecting only 0.3% of radiation between 250 nm and 14.3 µm, making them efficient for solar energy collectors.

It is inappropriate to use the word "aerogel" to characterize airy masses of carbon nanotubes created by specific chemical vapor deposition processes. These materials can be spun into fibers with better strength than Kevlar and distinct electrical characteristics. These materials, however, are not aerogels because they lack a monolithic internal structure and the regular pore structure that distinguishes aerogels.

Metal oxide

Metal oxide aerogels are utilized as catalysts in a variety of chemical processes and transformations, as well as as precursors for other materials.

Alumina aerogels are aerogels manufactured from aluminum oxide. These aerogels serve as catalysts, particularly when "doped" with a metal other than aluminum. The most prevalent combination is nickel–alumina aerogel. NASA is also looking at alumina aerogels for trapping high-velocity particles; a formulation doped with gadolinium and terbium might glow at the particle impact site, with the degree of fluorescence depending on the impact energy.

One of the most noticeable distinctions between silica and metal oxide aerogels is that metal oxide aerogels are frequently multicolored.

Other

Aerogels can be made from organic polymers. Agar is used to make SEAgel. Polyimide is used to make the AeroZero film. Plant cellulose can be utilized to make a flexible aerogel.

The first graphene-based aerogel, GraPhage13, was created by combining graphene oxide and the M13 bacteriophage.

Chalcogel is an aerogel composed of chalcogens (the periodic table's first column of elements, beginning with oxygen) such as sulfur, selenium, and other elements. Metals less expensive than platinum were employed in its manufacture.

Aerogels with cadmium selenide quantum dots embedded in a porous 3-D network have been produced for application in the semiconductor sector.

Aerogel performance can be improved for a particular application by adding dopants, reinforcing structures, and hybridizing chemicals. Aspen Aerogels manufactures products such as Spaceloft, which are aerogel composites with some type of fiber batting.

Applications

The "Stardust" dust collector with aerogel blocks. (NASA)

Cosmic dust caught in aerogel blocks from "Stardust". (NASA)

Cosmic dust tracks from a comet caught in aerogel blocks from "Stardust". (NASA)

Oil absorption by an aerogel. (Scientific Reports)

An aerogel held up by hair. (Scientific Reports)

An aerogel containing crayons with a flame ignited beneath it, displaying its superb heat insulation. (NASA)

Aerogels are used for a variety of applications:

Insulation; When compared to conventional materials, fibre reinforced silica aerogel insulation boards can reduce insulation thickness by around 50%. As a result, silica aerogel boards are highly suited for retrofitting ancient buildings or for use in busy urban settings. As another example, granular aerogel has been put to skylights for this reason. The semi-transparent roof of Georgia Institute of Technology's 2007 Solar Decathlon House was insulated using an aerogel.

A chemical adsorber used to clean up spills. Silica aerogels, which have a high surface area, porosity, and are ultrahydrophobic, can be utilized for filtering. They could be used to remove heavy metals. This could be used to treat wastewater.

A catalyst or a catalyst carrier.

Silica aerogels can be used in imaging devices, optics, and light guides.

Thickening agents in some paints and cosmetics.

As components in energy absorbers.

Laser targets for the United States National Ignition Facility (NIF).

A material used in impedance matchers for transducers, speakers and range finders.

Aerogels are used for more flexible materials such as clothing and blankets, according to Hindawi's Journal of Nanomaterials: "Around the year 2000, commercial production of aerogel 'blankets' began, combining silica aerogel and fibrous reinforcement to transform the brittle aerogel into a durable, flexible material. The mechanical and thermal properties of the product can be altered by changing the reinforcing fibers, the aerogel matrix, and the opacification additives in the composite."

Cosmic dust, commonly known as space dust, has been captured using silica aerogel. Aerogel was employed by NASA to trap space dust particles aboard the Stardust mission. The bulk of these aerogel dust collectors is extremely low. When the particles collide with solids, they evaporate and pass through gases, but they can be trapped in aerogels. Aerogel was also utilized by NASA for thermal insulation on the Mars rovers.

The US Navy investigated the use of aerogels in undergarments as a passive heat barrier for divers. Similarly, NASA has employed aerogels to insulate space suits.

Radiators in Cherenkov effect detectors, such as the ACC system of the Belle detector, utilized in the Belle experiment at KEKB, are employed in particle physics as radiators. Aerogels' usefulness is determined by their low index of refraction, which bridges the gap between gases and liquids, as well as their transparency and solid state, which make them easier to utilize than cryogenic liquids or compressed gases.

Resorcinol–formaldehyde aerogels (polymers chemically similar to phenol formaldehyde resins) are utilized as precursors for the production of carbon aerogels or when a large surface area organic insulator is sought.

Metal–aerogel nanocomposites precipitate nanoparticles of the metal after impregnating the hydrogel with a solution containing ions of a transition metal and irradiating the result with gamma rays. These composites have applications as catalysts, sensors, electromagnetic shielding, and waste disposal. Fuel cells are one potential application for platinum-on-carbon catalysts.

As a drug delivery system owing to its biocompatibility. Due to its high surface area and porous structure, drugs can be adsorbed from supercritical CO
₂. The release rate of the drugs can be tailored by varying the properties of the aerogel.

Carbon aerogels are utilized to make tiny electrochemical double layer supercapacitors. Because of the aerogel's high surface area, these capacitors can be 1/2000th to 1/5000th the size of comparably rated electrolytic capacitors. Hindawi's Journal of Nanomaterials states that "Aerogel supercapacitors have a very low impedance when compared to conventional supercapacitors and can absorb or create extremely high peak currents. Such capacitors are currently polarity-sensitive and must be linked in series if a working voltage larger than roughly 2.75 V is required."

Dunlop Sport uses aerogel in some of its racquets for sports such as tennis.

Chalcogels have showed potential in water filtration by absorbing heavy metal contaminants such as mercury, lead, and cadmium. Aerogels can be used to separate oil from water, which could be useful in responding to oil spills. Aerogels have the potential to be utilized to purify water by destroying germs.

Aerogel can introduce disorder into superfluid helium-3.

A carbon nanotube aerogel is being used in airplane de-icing, according to a new proposal. A winder spins a thin filament to form a 10 micron-thick film. The material required to cover the wings of a jumbo jet weighs 80 grams (2.8 oz). To prevent ice formation, aerogel heaters could be turned on continuously at low power.

Thermal insulation transmission tunnel of the Chevrolet Corvette (C7).

CamelBak uses aerogel as insulation in a thermal sport bottle.

45 North uses aerogel as palm insulation in its Sturmfist 5 cycling gloves.

Silica aerogels can be used to insulate sound, such as on windows or in building.

Production

Peter Tsou with an aerogel sample at the California Institute of Technology's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

A sol-gel technique is commonly used to create silica aerogels. The first stage is to make a "sol," which is a colloidal suspension of solid particles. The precursors are a liquid alcohol such as ethanol which is combined with a silicon alkoxide, such as tetramethoxysilane (TMOS), tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), and polyethoxydisiloxane (PEDS) (previous work employed sodium silicates) (earlier work used sodium silicates). A silica solution is combined with a catalyst and allowed to gel during a hydrolysis reaction that produces silicon dioxide particles. The oxide suspension begins to condense, resulting in the formation of metal oxide bridges (either M–O–M, "oxo" bridges or M–OH–M, "ol" bridges) that connect the scattered colloidal particles. Because these reactions have somewhat sluggish reaction rates, either acidic or basic catalysts are utilized to boost processing speed. Basic catalysts produce more clear aerogels, reduce shrinkage during the drying process, and reinforce the aerogel to prevent pore collapse during drying.

Finally, while the aerogel is drying, the liquid surrounding the silica network is carefully removed and replaced with air, while the aerogel remains intact. Xerogels are gels in which the liquid is allowed to evaporate at its own rate. As the liquid evaporates, the pressures generated by the surface tensions of the liquid-solid interfaces are strong enough to break the delicate gel network. As a result, xerogels are unable to achieve high porosities and instead peak at lower porosities with significant shrinkage after drying. Aerogels can be created by lyophilization to avoid fiber collapse during slow solvent evaporation and to lower surface tensions at liquid-solid interfaces (freeze-drying). The porosity of the finished aerogel will be determined by the concentration of the fibers and the temperature at which the material is frozen.

In 1931, to develop the first aerogels, Kistler used a process known as supercritical drying which avoids a direct phase change. By increasing the temperature and pressure he forced the liquid into a supercritical fluid state where by dropping the pressure he could instantly gasify and remove the liquid inside the aerogel, avoiding damage to the delicate three-dimensional network. While this can be done with ethanol, the high temperatures and pressures lead to dangerous processing conditions. A safer, lower temperature and pressure method involves a solvent exchange. This is typically done by exchanging the initial aqueous pore liquid for a CO₂-miscible liquid such as ethanol or acetone, then onto liquid carbon dioxide and then bringing the carbon dioxide above its critical point. A variant on this process involves the direct injection of supercritical carbon dioxide into the pressure vessel containing the aerogel. The end result of either process exchanges the initial liquid from the gel with carbon dioxide, without allowing the gel structure to collapse or lose volume.

The manufacture of resorcinol–formaldehyde aerogel (RF aerogel) is similar to that of silica aerogel. This resorcinol–formaldehyde aerogel can subsequently be converted into a carbon aerogel by pyrolysis in an inert gas atmosphere, resulting in a carbon matrix. The carbon aerogel that results can be utilized to make solid forms, powders, or composite paper. Aerogel additives have proved successful in improving various qualities of the aerogel for usage in specific applications. A number of continuous and discontinuous reinforcements have been used to create aerogel composites. Fibers with a high aspect ratio, such as fiberglass, have been utilized to reinforce aerogel composites, resulting in dramatically better mechanical properties.

Safety

There is no evidence that silica-based aerogels are carcinogenic or harmful. They are, however, an irritant to the eyes, skin, respiratory tract, and digestive system. They can also cause skin, ocular, and mucous membrane dryness. As a result, it is recommended that protective equipment such as respiratory protection, gloves, and eye goggles be worn whenever handling or processing raw aerogels, especially if dust or tiny pieces are present.

{End Chapter 1}

See also

Carbon nanofoam

Nanogel

Fogbank

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Further reading

NASA's Stardust comet return mission on AEROGEL.

N. Hüsing; U. Schubert (1998). "Aerogels – Airy Materials: Chemistry, Structure, and Properties". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 37 (1/2): 22–45. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19980202)37:1/2<22::AID-ANIE22>3.0.CO;2-I.

Pierre A. C.; Pajonk G. M. (2002). "Chemistry of aerogels and their applications". Chemical Reviews. 102 (11): 4243–4266. doi:10.1021/cr0101306. PMID 12428989.

External links

Open source aerogel

NASA photos of aerogel

LBL article covering the development of aerogels

Chapter 2: Nanogel

A nanogel is a nanoparticle made of a hydrogel, which is a network of crosslinked hydrophilic polymers. Nanogels are often made up of chemically or physically crosslinked synthetic polymers or biopolymers. Nanogels typically range in size from tens to hundreds of nanometers. Nanogels, like hydrogels, have a low macromolecule density, and their pores (spaces between macromolecular chains) can be filled with tiny molecules or macromolecules, and their properties, such as swelling, degradation, and chemical functionality, can be regulated.

Applications

Potential applications of nanogels include drug delivery agents, contrast agents for medical imaging or ¹⁹F MRI tracers, nanoactuators, and sensors.

Cross-linked nanogels provide a diverse platform for protein storage and release. It is a highly desirable way of loading and delivering active versions of proteins into cells to preserve activity, improve stability, and prevent potential immunogenicity.

Fluorine-containing nanogels can be used as tracers for ¹⁹F MRI, because their aggregation and tissue binding has only minor effect on their ¹⁹F MRI signal. Furthermore, they can carry drugs and their physico-chemical properties of the polymers can be highly modulated.

Polyethylenimine (PEI) nanogels have been employed to transport anti-cancer chemicals into cells.

Dextran nanogels have been produced for radioactive imaging of tumor-associated macrophages and bone targeting.

A fluorescent nanogel thermometer was developed to measure temperatures to within 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) in living cells. The cell absorbs water when colder and squeezes the water out as its internal temperature rises; the relative quantity of water masks or exposes the fluorescence of the nanogel.

{End Chapter 2}

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Babuka, David; Kolouchova, Kristyna; Groborz, Ondrej; Tosner, Zdenek; Zhigunov, Alexander; Stepanek, Petr; Hruby, Martin (2020). "Internal Structure of Thermoresponsive Physically Crosslinked Nanogel of Poly[N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide]-Block-Poly[N-(2,2-difluoroethyl)acrylamide], Prominent 19F MRI Tracer". Nanomaterials. 10 (11): 2231. doi:10.3390/nano10112231. ISSN 2079-4991.

Babuka, David; Kolouchova, Kristyna; Hruby, Martin; Groborz, Ondrej; Tosner, Zdenek; Zhigunov, Alexander; Stepanek, Petr (2019). "Investigation of the internal structure of thermoresponsive diblock poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline)-b-poly[N-(2,2-difluoroethyl)acrylamide] copolymer nanoparticles". European Polymer Journal. 121: 109306. doi:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2019.109306. ISSN 0014-3057.

Vinogradov, S; Zeman, A; Batrakova, E; Kabanov, A (2005). "Polyplex Nanogel formulations for drug delivery of cytotoxic nucleoside analogs". Journal of Controlled Release. 107 (1): 143–57. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2005.06.002. PMC 1357595. PMID 16039001.

Ganta, Chanran; Shi, Aibin; Battina, Srinivas K.; Pyle, Marla; Rana, Sandeep; Hua, Duy H.; Tamura, Masaaki; Troyer, Deryl (May 2008). "Combination of nanogel polyethylene glycol-polyethylenimine and 6(hydroxymethyl)-1,4-anthracenedione as an anticancer nanomedicine". Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 8 (5): 2334–40. doi:10.1166/jnn.2008.294. PMC 2556214. PMID 18572646.

Keliher, Edmund J.; Yoo, Jeongsoo; Nahrendorf, Matthias; Lewis, Jason S.; Marinelli, Brett; Newton, Andita; Pittet, Mikael J.; Weissleder, Ralph (2011). "89Zr-Labeled Dextran Nanoparticles Allow in Vivo Macrophage Imaging". Bioconjugate Chemistry. 22 (12): 2383–9. doi:10.1021/bc200405d. PMC 3244512. PMID 22035047.

Heller, Daniel A.; Levi, Yair; Pelet, Jeisa M.; Doloff, Joshua C.; Wallas, Jasmine; Pratt, George W.; Jiang, Shan; Sahay, Gaurav; Schroeder, Avi; Schroeder, Josh E.; Chyan, Yieu; Zurenko, Christopher; Querbes, William; Manzano, Miguel; Kohane, Daniel S.; Langer, Robert; Anderson, Daniel G. (2013). "Modular 'Click-in-Emulsion' Bone-Targeted Nanogels" (PDF). Advanced Materials. 25 (10): 1449–54. doi:10.1002/adma.201202881. PMC 3815631. PMID 23280931.

Gota, Chie; Okabe, Kohki; Funatsu, Takashi; Harada, Yoshie; Uchiyama, Seiichi (2009). "Hydrophilic Fluorescent Nanogel Thermometer for Intracellular Thermometry". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 131 (8): 2766–7. doi:10.1021/ja807714j. PMID 19199610.

Further reading

Ye, Yanqi; Yu, Jicheng; Gu, Zhen (2015). "Versatile Protein Nanogels Prepared by In Situ Polymerization". Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics. 217 (3): 333–343. doi:10.1002/macp.201500296.

Yan, Ming; Ge, Jun; Liu, Zheng; Ouyang, Pingkai (2006). "Encapsulation of Single Enzyme in Nanogel with Enhanced Biocatalytic Activity and Stability". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 128 (34): 11008–9. doi:10.1021/ja064126t. PMID 16925402.

Reese, Chad E.; Mikhonin, Alexander V.; Kamenjicki, Marta; Tikhonov, Alexander; Asher, Sanford A. (2004). "Nanogel Nanosecond Photonic Crystal Optical Switching". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 126 (5): 1493–6. doi:10.1021/ja037118a. PMID 14759207.

Lee, Eun Seong; Kim, Dongin; Youn, Yu Seok; Oh, Kyung Taek; Bae, You Han (2008). "A Virus-Mimetic Nanogel Vehicle". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 47 (13): 2418–21. doi:10.1002/anie.200704121. PMC 3118583. PMID 18236507.

Hasegawa, Urara; Nomura, Shin-Ichiro M.; Kaul, Sunil C.; Hirano, Takashi; Akiyoshi, Kazunari (2005). "Nanogel-quantum dot hybrid nanoparticles for live cell imaging". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 331 (4): 917–21. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.03.228. PMID 15882965.

Du, Jin-Zhi; Sun, Tian-Meng; Song, Wen-Jing; Wu, Juan; Wang, Jun (2010). "A Tumor-Acidity-Activated Charge-Conversional Nanogel as an Intelligent Vehicle for Promoted Tumoral-Cell Uptake and Drug Delivery". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 49 (21): 3621–6. doi:10.1002/anie.200907210. PMID 20391548.

Chapter 3: Carbon nanofoam

Carbon nanofoam is an allotrope of carbon discovered in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and co-workers at the Australian National University in Canberra. It consists of a cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web. The fractal-like bond structure consists of sp2 graphite-like clusters connected by sp3 bonds. The sp3 bonds are located mostly on the surface of the structure and make up 15% to 45% of the material, making its framework similar to diamond-like carbon films. The material is remarkably light, with a density of 2-10 x 10−3 g/cm3 (0.0012 lb/ft3) and is similar to an aerogel. Other remarkable physical properties include the large surface area of 300–400 m2/g (similar to zeolites). A gallon of nanofoam weighs about a quarter of an ounce.

Each cluster is around 6 nanometers across and made up of approximately 4000 carbon atoms joined in graphite-like sheets with negative curvature due to the inclusion of heptagons among the regular hexagonal pattern. This is the inverse of what happens in the case of buckminsterfullerenes, where the inclusion of pentagons gives carbon sheets positive curvature.

The large-scale structure of carbon nanofoam is similar to that of an aerogel, but with 1% of the density of previously produced carbon aerogels—or only a few times the density of air at sea level. Unlike carbon aerogels, carbon nanofoam is a poor electrical conductor. The nanofoam contains numerous unpaired electrons, which Rode and colleagues propose is due to carbon atoms with only three bonds that are found at topological and bonding defects. This gives rise to what is perhaps carbon nanofoam's most unusual feature: it is attracted to magnets, and below −183 °C can itself be made magnetic.

Carbon nanofoam is the only form of pure carbon known to be ferromagnetic which is unusual for a carbon allotrope. Ferromagnetism is an intrinsic property observed in the carbon nanofoam and may be accounted for by its complex structure. Impurities in the material are excluded as the source of magnetism as they are not sufficient for the strong magnetization observed. Researchers postulate that embedded carbon atoms with unpaired electrons carry enough of a magnetic moment to lead to strong magnetization. The sheet curvature localizes unpaired electrons by breaking up the π-electron clouds and sterically protects the electrons which normally would be too reactive to persist. The ferromagnetism of the carbon nanofoam is sensitive to time and temperature. Some magnetism is lost within the first few hours of synthesis, however most of it is persistent. Carbon nanofoam may have some application in spintronic devices which exploits electron spin as a further degree of freedom.

Because of its low density and large surface area, carbon nanofoam may be excellent for hydrogen storage. Preliminary tests have demonstrated that hydrogen can be stored in nanofoam at room temperature in a reversible process.

Synthesis

Carbon nanofoam clusters can be synthesized through high-repetition-rate laser ablation in inert gases such as argon. Short (fs), low-energy (µJ) pulses delivered at high rates of repetition (10 kHz – 100 MHz) generate carbon vapors for deposition. Ambient gas is heated from room temperature with the atomized carbon which leads to an increase in the partial density of the carbon in the chamber. In optimal conditions, the inert gas does not cool down but maintains its high temperature between cycles of formation. Subsequent cycles in the chamber are carried out at temperatures above the formation threshold temperature initiating sp² bonding. The increase in density and temperature promotes favorable conditions for the formation of carbonaceous clusters. The rate of consumption exceeds the rate of evaporation by laser ablation and thus the formation is in a non-equilibrium state.

{End Chapter 3}

See also

Truncated order-7 triangular tiling

References

Rode, A.V.; Hyde, S.T.; Gamaly, E.G.; Elliman, R.G.; McKenzie, D.R.; Bulcock, S. (1999). "Structural analysis of a carbon foam formed by high pulse-rate laser ablation". Applied Physics A: Materials Science & Processing. 69 (7): S755–S758. Bibcode:1999ApPhA..69S.755R. doi:10.1007/s003390051522.

Rode, A.V.; Gamaly, E.G.; Luther-Davies, B. (2000-02-01). "Formation of cluster-assembled carbon nano-foam by high-repetition-rate laser ablation". Applied Physics A. 70 (2): 135–144. Bibcode:2000ApPhA..70..135R. doi:10.1007/s003390050025. hdl:1885/35128. ISSN 1432-0630.

Zani, A.; Dellasega, D.; Russo, V.; Passoni, M. (2013). "Ultra-low density carbon foams produced by pulsed laser deposition". Carbon. 56: 358–365. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2013.01.029.

Blinc, R.; Arčon, D.; Umek, P.; Apih, T.; Milia, F.; Rode, A. V. (2007). "Carbon nanofoam as a potential hydrogen storage material". Physica Status Solidi B. 244 (11): 4308–4310. Bibcode:2007PSSBR.244.4308B. doi:10.1002/pssb.200776149. ISSN 1521-3951.

Kenneth Chang (April 6, 2004). "A Flaky New Carbon: It's Feather Light and Magnetic". The New York Times.

Rode, A. V.; Gamaly, E. G.; Christy, A. G.; Fitz Gerald, J. G.; Hyde, S. T.; Elliman, R. G.; Luther-Davies, B.; Veinger, A. I.; Androulakis, J.; Giapintzakis, J. (2004-08-17). "Unconventional magnetism in all-carbon nanofoam". Physical Review B. 70 (5): 054407. arXiv:cond-mat/0310751. Bibcode:2004PhRvB..70e4407R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.70.054407.

Chapter 4: Fogbank

Fogbank is a code name for a substance used in the United States' nuclear arsenal's W76, W78, and W88 nuclear bombs.

Fogbank's precise nature is classified; in the words of former Oak Ridge general manager Dennis Ruddy, "The material is classified. Its composition is classified. Its use in the weapon is classified, and the process itself is classified." Department of Energy Nuclear Explosive Safety documents simply describe it as a material "used in nuclear weapons and nuclear explosives" along with lithium hydride (LiH) and lithium deuteride (LiD), beryllium (Be), uranium hydride (UH₃), and plutonium hydride.

However, NNSA Administrator Tom D'Agostino revealed the role of Fogbank in the weapon: "There's another material in the—called it's interstage material, also known as Fogbank," and arms experts believe that Fogbank is an aerogel material that acts as an interstage material in a nuclear warhead; i.e., a material designed to become a superheated plasma following the detonation of the weapon's fission stage, the plasma then

History

Unclassified official sources have disclosed that Fogbank was originally constructed at the Y-12 National Security Complex's Facility 9404-11 in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, from 1975 until 1989, when the final batch of W76 warheads was finished. Following that, the facility was put on hold, and it was finally scheduled for dismantling in 1993. Only a small pilot plant remained, which had been used to make small batches of Fogbank for testing.

The United States chose in 1996 to replace, refurbish, or decommission a considerable number of its nuclear weapons. As a result, the Department of Energy established a refurbishing program to extend the service lives of aging nuclear weapons. The NNSA specified a life-extension scheme for W76 warheads in 2000, which would let them to remain in operation until at least 2040.

The Fogbank material was quickly identified as a potential source of problems for the program, as few records of its manufacturing process had been retained when it was first manufactured in the 1980s, and nearly all staff members with expertise in its production had either retired or left the agency. The NNSA briefly considered finding a replacement for Fogbank, but ultimately decided that because Fogbank had already been manufactured, they would be able to replicate it. According to a Los Alamos publication, "Los Alamos computer simulations at the time were not sophisticated enough to determine clearly that a substitute material would perform as effectively as Fogbank."

The moderately hazardous, very volatile solvent acetonitrile is used in the manufacturing process, posing a hazard to employees (causing three evacuations in March 2006 alone).

With Facility 9404-11 long defunct, a whole new manufacturing facility was necessary. Delays occurred during its development, as engineers continually failed in their efforts to produce Fogbank. As one deadline after another passed, and the timeline was repeatedly pushed back, the NNSA ultimately decided to invest $23 million in an attempt to find an alternative to Fogbank.

Engineers ultimately developed a manufacturing procedure for Fogbank in March 2007. Unfortunately, when tested, the material revealed flaws, and the NNSA elevated the Fogbank project to "Code Blue" status in September 2007, making it a top priority. The NNSA ultimately succeeded to build Fogbank in 2008, after spending an additional $69 million, and 7 months later, the first restored warhead was turned over to the US Navy, nearly a decade after the refurbishing operation began. However, a US Navy spokeswoman stated in May 2009 that no reconditioned weapons had been received to date. According to the Energy Department, the current goal is to begin exporting refurbished weapons in the fall of 2009, which is two years behind schedule.

The reverse engineering experience Fogbank resulted in several advancements in scientific understanding of the process. The new production scientists observed that several production issues were similar to those identified by the earlier team. These issues were traced back to a specific contaminant in the final product, which was necessary to meet quality standards. An inquiry into the primary cause revealed that input materials were subjected to cleaning techniques that did not exist during the original production run. This cleaning removed a chemical that was responsible for the impurity. With the implicit role of this material finally established, production scientists will be able to manage output quality better than during the initial run.

{End Chapter 4}

References

Robert B Bonner, Stephan E Lott, Howard H Woo (January 2001). Secondary Lifetime Assessment Study (PDF) (Report). Sandia National Labs. p. 52. SAND2001-0063.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)

Last, Jonathan V. (18 May 2009). "The Fog of War: Forgetting what we once knew". The Weekly Standard. 14 (33).

"Fogbank: Lost Knowledge Regained" (PDF). Nuclear Weapons Journal. Los Alamos (2): 20–21. 2009.

Lewis, Jeffrey. "FOGBANK". Arms Control Wonk.

Sample, Ian (6 March 2008). "Technical hitch delays renewal of nuclear warheads for Trident". The Guardian.

Edwards, Rob (12 March 2008). "Trident missiles delayed by mystery ingredient". New Scientist (2646): 15. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(08)60578-3.

Vartabedian, Ralph (29 May 2009). "Program to refurbish aging nuclear warheads faces setbacks". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 30 May 2009.

Chapter 5: Silica gel

Colloidal silica gel with light opalescence

Silica gel is an amorphous and porous type of silicon dioxide (silica), with an uneven tridimensional framework of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms with nanometer-scale spaces and pores. The spaces might be filled with water or other liquids, or they could be filled with gas or vacuum. In the latter situation, the substance is correctly referred to as silica xerogel.

With an average pore size of 2.4 nanometers, silica xerogel has a high affinity for water molecules and is commonly employed as a desiccant. It is hard and translucent, but much softer than large silica glass or quartz, and it retains its hardness even when soaked with water.

Silica xerogel is often sold in the form of coarse granules or beads a few millimeters in diameter. Some grains may contain trace amounts of an indicator chemical that changes color when exposed to water. Small paper envelopes containing silica xerogel pellets, normally labeled "do not consume," are frequently included in dry food containers to absorb any humidity that may cause food spoiling.

Wet' silica gel can range in consistency from a soft translucent gel, akin to gelatin or agar, to a hard solid, especially a water-logged xerogel, when freshly made from alkali silicate solutions. It is sometimes utilized in laboratory procedures, such as suppressing convection in liquids or preventing suspended particles from settling.

The Silica gel identifiers are:

Identifiers

CAS Number

112926-00-8

ChemSpider

none

ECHA InfoCard

100.065.880

CompTox Dashboard (EPA)

DTXSID0051285

Properties

Chemical formula

SiO₂

Molar mass

60.08 g/mol

Appearance

Transparent beads

Odor

Odorless

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Contents

1 History

2 Types

3 Properties

4 Regeneration

5 Preparation

6 Uses

6.1 Desiccant

6.2 Chemistry

6.3 Cat litter

6.4 Food additive

6.5 Water filtration

6.6 Humidity indicator (color-changing silica gel)

7 Hazards

8 References

9 External links

History

As a scientific curiosity, silica gel existed as early as the 1640s. Walter A. Patrick, a chemistry professor at Johns Hopkins University, patented the synthetic approach for manufacturing silica gel in 1918.

During WWII, silica gel was critical to the war effort for keeping penicillin dry, protecting military equipment from moisture damage, as a fluid cracking catalyst for the production of high octane gasoline, making carbon disulphide, and as a catalyst support for the production of butadiene from ethanol (feedstock for synthetic rubber production).

Types

Type A – Clear pellets with an approximate pore diameter of 2.5 nm, drying and moistureproof qualities, that can be employed as catalyst carriers, adsorbents, separators, and variable-pressure adsorbents.

Type B – translucent white pellets, pore diameter: 4.5⁠–⁠7.0 nm, liquid adsorbents, drier and perfume carriers, also may be used as catalyst carriers, cat litter.

Type C — raw material for the manufacturing of silica gel cat litter with a translucent, micro-pored structure. It is also dried and screened to produce macro-pored silica gel, which is used as a drier, adsorbent, and catalyst carrier.

Silica alumina gel is a light yellow gel that is chemically stable, flame resistant, and insoluble except in alkali or hydrofluoric acid. Superior to fine-pored silica gel in terms of surface polarity, thermal stability, and performance.

Stabilizing silica gel is a non-crystalline micro-porous solid powder that is nontoxic and flame-resistant. It is used in the brewing of grains for beer to improve taste, clarity, color, and froth, as well as to remove non-microorganism contaminants.

Properties

Silica gel's high specific surface area (around 750–800 m²/g) allows it to by adsorb water readily, making it useful as a desiccant (drying agent). Silica gel is often described as "absorbing" moisture, which may be appropriate when the gel's microscopic structure is ignored, as in silica gel packs or other products. However, material silica gel removes moisture by adsorption onto the surface of its numerous pores rather than by absorption into the bulk of the gel.

Regeneration

Once saturated with water, the gel may be regenerated by heating it to 120 °C (250 °F) for 1–2 hours. Some types of silica gel will "pop" when exposed to enough water. This is caused by breakage of the silica spheres when contacting the water.

Preparation

An aqueous sodium silicate solution is acidified to form a gelatinous precipitate, which is rinsed and dehydrated to yield colorless silica gel. Methyl violet, which is orange when dry and green when hydrated, is an alternate indication.

Uses

Desiccant

Silica gel is a commonly used desiccant as beads packed in a permeable bag

Moisture promotes mold growth and deterioration in many objects. Condensation can also harm other goods like electronics and hasten the degradation of substances like those found in vitamin pills. These things can be kept for a longer period of time by including silica gel packets. It may aid in the drying out of electronic equipment during attempts to rehabilitate things that have been accidently exposed to moisture.

Silica gel can also be used to keep the relative humidity as low as feasible inside a high frequency radio or satellite transmission system waveguide (see also humidity buffering). Excessive moisture buildup within a waveguide can produce arcing, which can damage the power amplifier that feeds it. Furthermore, the water beads that develop and condense inside the waveguide alter the characteristic impedance and frequency, weakening the signal. To circulate the air inside the waveguide over a jar of silica gel, a tiny compressed air system (akin to a small home aquarium pump) is commonly used.

In industrial compressed air systems, silica gel is also used to dry the air. A bed of silica gel beads filters air from the compressor discharge. The silica gel absorbs moisture from the air, preventing harm to the compressed air at the point of usage due to condensation or moisture. The similar technique is used to dry compressed air on railway locomotives, where condensation and ice in brake air lines can cause brake failure.

Prior to the widespread adoption of air conditioning, salt shakers with caps containing silica gel beads to keep the salt dry enough to prevent clumping were offered in the United States, replacing the tradition of inserting a few grains of rice in salt shakers to achieve the same dryness.

In museum and library exhibitions and storage, silica gel is occasionally employed as a preservation method to maintain relative humidity.

Diagnostic test strips, inhalation devices, syringes, drug test kits, and hospital cleansing kits are some of the other applications.

Chemistry

Chromatography column

In chemistry, silica gel is used in chromatography as a stationary phase. In column chromatography, the stationary phase is most often composed of silica gel particles of 40–63 μm. Different particle sizes are used for different kinds of column chromatography as the particle size is related to surface area. The differences in particle size dictate if the silica gel should be used for flash or gravity chromatography. In this application, due to silica gel's polarity, non-polar components tend to elute before more polar ones, hence the name normal phase chromatography. However, when hydrophobic groups (such as C₁₈ groups) are attached to the silica gel then polar components elute first and the method is referred to as reverse phase chromatography. Silica gel is also applied to aluminium, glass, or plastic sheets for thin layer chromatography.

The hydroxy (OH) groups on silica's surface can be functionalized to create specialized silica gels with distinct stationary phase properties. These so-called functionalized silica gels are also utilized as insoluble reagents and scavengers in organic synthesis and purification.

Silica gel has also been covalently bonded with chelating groups. These materials have the ability to selectively remove metal ions from aqueous solutions. Chelating groups can be covalently attached to polyamines that have been grafted onto a silica gel surface, resulting in a more mechanically stable material. A M-SG reducing agent is also formed by combining silica gel with alkali metals. (See also SiGNa chemistry.)

Silica gel is not expected to biodegrade in either water or soil.

Cat litter

Silica gel is also used as cat litter, either alone or in conjunction with more typical materials like clays containing bentonite. It is non-tracking and almost odorless.

Food additive

Silica gel, also known as silicon dioxide or synthetic amorphous silica (SAS), is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA in the United States, which means it can be added to food products without requiring clearance. Silica can be added to food at a rate of up to 2% in the United States, according to 21 CFR 172.480. It can be found in amounts of up to 5% in the EU.

Anticaking agent, defoaming agent, stabilizer, adsorbent, carrier, conditioning agent, chillproofing agent, filter aid, emulsifying agent, viscosity control agent, and anti-settling agent are among the uses listed.

Water filtration

Because of its water adsorption capabilities, silica gel is employed in household water filters. or, as it is billed, "Ion-exchange." Because there are no restrictions for residential water filtration equipment, no studies have been conducted to substantiate the manufacturer's claims about the performance of the filter system.

Humidity indicator (color-changing silica gel)

Indicating silica gel

Silica gel can be doped with a moisture indicator, which changes color gradually as it transitions from the anhydrous (dry) to the hydrated (wet) condition. Cobalt(II) chloride and methyl violet are common markers. Cobalt (II) chloride is deep blue when dry and pink when wet, however it is poisonous and carcinogenic, and the European Union classed it as a hazardous chemical in July 2000.

Hazards

Silica gel is non-toxic, non-flammable, non-reactive, and stable under normal conditions. Hydrogen fluoride, fluorine, oxygen difluoride, chlorine trifluoride, strong acids, strong bases, and oxidizers will all react with it. While crystalline silica dust can cause silicosis, synthetic amorphous silica gel is indurated and does not. When doped with a humidity indicator, additional dangers may arise.

{End Chapter 5}

References

^ Silica gel, site www.jtbaker.com

^ Silica gel, site www.chemcas.org

^ Silicon dioxide, site echa.europa.eu

^ H.K. Henisch (1988): Crystals in Gels and Liesegang Rings. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521345030

^ Maryann Feldman and Pierre Desrochers (March 2003). "Research Universities and Local Economic Development: Lessons from the History of the Johns Hopkins University" (PDF). Industry and Innovation. 10 (1): 5–24. doi:10.1080/1366271032000068078. S2CID 154423229. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-11-12.

^ http://hengyeusa.com/community/desiccants-at-war

^ a b c d Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.

^ Spence Konde, "Preparation of High-Silica Zeolite Beads From Silica Gel," retrieved 2011-09-26

^ "Blue Silicagel & Conclusions: Safety information on blue silicagel". Archived from the original on 2016-01-05.

^ a b Environmental Health and Safety (2007-09-10). "Silica Gel". Retrieved 2008-01-12.

^ Andrew Kantor (2004-12-10). "Non-Tech High Tech Litters the Landscape". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-03-02.

^ "Notification of the GRAS Determination of Silicon Dioxide When Added Directly or Indirectly to Human Food" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 18, 2013.

^ M. Younes, P. Aggett, F. Aguilar (2018). "Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of silicon dioxide (E 551) as a food additive". EFSA Journal. 16 (1): 5088, 70pp. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5088.

^ "GRAS Notice (GRN) No. 298" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 9, 2011.

^ M. Younes, P. Aggett, F. Aguilar (2018). "Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of silicon dioxide (E 551) as a food additive". EFSA Journal. 16 (1): 5088, 70pp. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5088.

^ ZeroWater

^ J. B. Peri , A. L. Hensley Jr. (1968). "The surface structure of silica gel". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 72 (8): 2926–2933. doi:10.1021/j100854a041.

^ "Classifications - CL Inventory".

^ "Methyl Violet Safety Data Sheet" (PDF). labchem.

^ "SORBSIL CHAMELEON Safety Data Sheet" (PDF). OkerChemie.

^ Fisher Scientific (1997-02-09). ""Silica Gel Dessiccant"[sic]". Retrieved 2008-01-12.

External links

Record in the Household Products Database of NLM

UK Material Safety Datasheet

Silica Gel with Moisture indicator: Instructions for Use Detailed use and re-drying info

Silica Gel Dehumidifier FAQs Helpful Information on Rechargeable Silica Packs for Home Usage

Silica-bound reagents Information on development and Tables illustrating reactivity

Silica-bound scavengers General notes and Tables that summarize scavenging capacity

Chapter 6: Materials science

Scanning electron microscopy image of a diamond cuboctahedron with seven crystallographic planes.

Materials science, often known as materials science and engineering, is an interdisciplinary field that deals with the design and discovery of novel materials, particularly solids. Materials science has its conceptual roots in the Age of Enlightenment, when academics began to employ analytical reasoning from chemistry, physics, and engineering to interpret ancient, phenomenological data in metallurgy and mineralogy. Materials science is still influenced by physics, chemistry, and engineering. As a result, academic institutions have long regarded the field as a sub-field of these connected fields. Materials science became more widely acknowledged as a distinct branch of science and engineering beginning in the 1940s, and major technical colleges throughout the world established specialized schools for its study.

Materials scientists place a premium on knowing how a material's history (processing) effects its structure, and consequently the material's qualities and performance. The materials paradigm refers to the understanding of processing-structure-properties interactions. This paradigm is utilized to increase understanding in a wide range of scientific fields, including nanotechnology, biomaterials, and metallurgy.

Materials science is also an important component of forensic engineering and failure analysis, which involves the investigation of materials, goods, buildings, or components that fail or do not work as intended, resulting in personal injury or property damage. Such investigations are critical for understanding the reasons of numerous aircraft accidents and events, for example.

History

A late Bronze Age sword or dagger blade

A given era's material of choice is frequently a defining point. Historic, albeit arbitrary, examples include the terms Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Steel Age. Materials science is one of the oldest types of engineering and applied science, coming from the fabrication of ceramics and its probable offshoot metallurgy. Modern materials science arose straight from metallurgy, which in turn arose from mining and (possibly) ceramics, and even earlier from the usage of fire. A key breakthrough in material understanding occurred in the late nineteenth century, when the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs discovered that thermodynamic parameters connected to atomic structure in various phases are related to a material's physical qualities. The Space Race produced important parts of current materials science, such as the knowledge and engineering of metallic alloys, as well as silica and carbon materials, employed in the construction of space vessels capable of space exploration. The creation of innovative technologies such as rubbers, plastics, semiconductors, and biomaterials has been propelled and driven by materials science.

Many future materials science departments were metallurgy or ceramics engineering departments prior to the 1960s (and in some cases decades beyond), reflecting the 19th and early 20th century concentration on metals and ceramics. The Advanced Research Projects Agency, which supported a number of university-hosted laboratories in the early 1960s to "extend the national program of basic research and training in the materials sciences," helped to spark the expansion of materials science in the United States. Since then, the area has expanded to embrace every type of material, including ceramics, polymers, semiconductors, magnetic materials, biomaterials, and nanomaterials, which are generally categorized into three main groups: ceramics, metals, and polymers. The active use of computer simulations to develop new materials, forecast properties, and comprehend events has been a significant change in materials science during the last few decades.

Fundamentals

The materials paradigm represented in the form of a tetrahedron

A material is described as a substance (usually a solid, but other condensed phases might be included) that is meant to be utilized for specific purposes. There are numerous materials all around us; they can be found in everything from houses and automobiles to spacecraft. Metals, semiconductors, ceramics, and polymers are the four major types of materials. Nanomaterials, biomaterials, and energy materials are just a few of the new and sophisticated materials being produced.

The study of the interplay between the structure of materials, the processing methods used to manufacture that material, and the resulting material properties is the foundation of materials science. The intricate combination of factors results in a material's performance in a certain application. Multiple variables across many length scales influence material performance, including constituent chemical constituents, microstructure, and macroscopic processing aspects. Materials scientists hope to understand and enhance materials by using thermodynamic and kinetic rules.

Structure

Structure is one of the most essential aspects in materials science. Materials science investigates the structure of materials from the atomic to the macro scale. Characterization is the process by which materials scientists investigate the structure of a material. This includes X-ray, electron, and neutron diffraction, as well as other forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscopy analysis, and so on.

Structure is studied in the following levels.

Atomic structure

Atomic structure is concerned with the atoms of materials and how they are ordered to form molecules, crystals, and so on. This level of structure is responsible for a large portion of a material's electrical, magnetic, and chemical properties. The length scales used are measured in angstroms (). Chemical bonding and atomic arrangement (crystallography) are important to understanding any material's properties and behavior.

Bonding

To fully comprehend the material structure and how it relates to its qualities, the materials scientist must investigate how the various atoms, ions, and molecules are ordered and connected to one another. This entails the study and application of quantum chemistry or quantum physics. Bonding and structure are also studied using solid-state physics, solid-state chemistry, and physical chemistry.

Crystallography

Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX₃

The science of crystallography is concerned with the arrangement of atoms in crystalline substances. Crystallography is a valuable resource for materials scientists. Because the inherent morphologies of crystals reflect the atomic structure, the impacts of the crystalline arrangement of atoms are typically visible macroscopically in single crystals. Furthermore, crystalline imperfections frequently regulate physical qualities. Understanding crystal structures is a necessary precondition for understanding crystallographic faults. Most materials do not exist as a single crystal, but rather as a polycrystalline aggregate of microscopic crystals or grains with varying orientations. As a result, the powder diffraction approach, which employs diffraction patterns from polycrystalline samples with a large number of crystals, is crucial in structural determination. Although the majority of materials have a crystalline structure, certain significant materials do not have a typical crystal structure. Polymers vary in their crystallinity, and several are completely non-crystalline. Amorphous materials include glass, some ceramics, and many natural materials, which lack long-range order in their atomic configurations. Polymer research blends chemical and statistical thermodynamics to provide thermodynamic and mechanical descriptions of physical characteristics.

Nanostructure

Buckminsterfullerene nanostructure

Nanomaterials are materials in which atoms and molecules form constituents at the nanoscale (i.e., they form nanostructures). Because of their unique features, nanomaterials are the focus of significant research in the materials science community.

The term "nanostructure" refers to objects and structures with dimensions ranging from 1 to 100 nm. At the nanoscale, atoms or molecules clump together to create objects in various materials. This results in a variety of intriguing electrical, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties.

It is vital to distinguish between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale when describing nanostructures.

On the nanoscale, nanotextured surfaces have only one dimension, namely the thickness of an object's surface, which ranges between 0.1 and 100 nm.

On the nanoscale, nanotubes have two dimensions: the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm, and the length can be much larger.

Finally, spherical nanoparticles have three dimensions on the nanoscale, ranging from 0.1 to 100 nm in each spatial dimension. Although UFP can extend into the micrometre range, the terms nanoparticles and ultrafine particles (UFP) are frequently used interchangeably. When discussing magnetic technology, the term 'nanostructure' is frequently used. In biology, nanoscale structure is frequently referred to as ultrastructure.

Microstructure

Microstructure of pearlite

The structure of a prepared surface or thin foil of material exposed by a microscope at magnifications greater than 25 is referred to as microstructure. It works with objects ranging in size from 100 nm to a few centimeters. A material's microstructure (which can be roughly classed as metallic, polymeric, ceramic, or composite) can have a significant impact on physical qualities such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on. The majority of traditional materials (metals and ceramics, for example) are microstructured.

It is physically impossible to create a flawless crystal of a substance. Precipitates, grain boundaries (Hall–Petch relationship), vacancies, interstitial atoms, or substitutional atoms, for example, will be present in any crystalline material. These larger faults are revealed by the microstructure of materials, and developments in simulation have allowed for a better understanding of how defects might be employed to improve material qualities.

Macrostructure

Macrostructure is a material's appearance on a scale of millimeters to meters; it represents the material's structure as perceived with the naked eye.

Properties

Materials exhibit myriad properties, including the following.

Mechanical properties, see Strength of materials

Chemical properties, see Chemistry

Electrical properties, see Electricity

Thermal properties, see Thermodynamics

Optical properties, see Optics and Photonics

Magnetic properties, see Magnetism

The properties of a material determine its usability and hence its engineering application.

Processing

The development of a material with the required micro-nanostructure is the goal of synthesis and processing. A material cannot be employed in industry if no cost-effective manufacturing technique for it has been devised. As a result, material processing is critical to the discipline of materials science. Different materials necessitate different ways of processing or synthesis. Metal processing, for example, has historically been very important and is studied under the materials science discipline known as physical metallurgy. Other materials, such as polymers, ceramics, thin films, and so on, are also synthesized using chemical and physical techniques. As of the early twenty-first century, new technologies for synthesizing nanomaterials such as graphene are being developed.

Thermodynamics

A phase diagram for a binary system displaying a eutectic point

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and temperature in relation to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables that describe a body of matter or radiation, such as internal energy, entropy, and pressure. It specifies that the behavior of those variables is constrained by general restrictions that apply to all materials. The four laws of thermodynamics express these general restrictions. Thermodynamics covers the bulk behavior of the body rather than the microscopic behaviors of its many microscopic elements, such as molecules. Statistical mechanics describes the behavior of these minuscule particles, and the principles of thermodynamics are derived from it.

The study of thermodynamics is crucial in materials science. It serves as the foundation for the study of generic phenomena in materials science and engineering, such as chemical reactions, magnetism, polarizability, and elasticity. It also aids comprehension of phase diagrams and phase equilibrium.

Kinetics

Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates at which out-of-equilibrium systems change under the influence of various factors. When applied to materials science, it is concerned with how a material changes over time (from a non-equilibrium to an equilibrium state) as a result of the application of a certain field. It describes the rate at which various processes in materials, such as shape, size, composition, and structure, evolve. Diffusion is essential in kinetics because it is the most common mechanism through which materials change. Kinetics is important in material processing because it describes how the microstructure changes when heat is applied, among other things.

Research

Materials science is a thriving field of study. Materials research include physics, chemistry, and numerous engineering departments, in addition to materials science departments. Materials research encompasses a wide range of issues; the following non-exhaustive list highlights a few key research areas.

Nanomaterials

A scanning electron microscopy image of carbon nanotubes bundles

Nanomaterials are materials that, in principle, have a single unit size (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers (109 meter), but are often 1 nm - 100 nm. Nanomaterials research uses improvements in materials metrology and synthesis gained in support of microfabrication research to take a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology. Materials having nanoscale structure frequently offer unique optical, electrical, or mechanical capabilities. The field of nanomaterials is divided into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials such as fullerenes and inorganic nanomaterials based on other elements such as silicon, similarly to the traditional subject of chemistry. Fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, nanocrystals, and other nanomaterials are examples.

Biomaterials

The iridescent nacre inside a nautilus shell

Any materials, surface, or structure that interacts with biological processes is referred to as a biomaterial. Biomaterials science is the study of biomaterials. It has grown steadily and rapidly throughout its history, with numerous companies investing enormous sums of money in developing new goods. Medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering, and materials science all play a role in biomaterials science.

Biomaterials can be generated from nature or produced in a laboratory utilizing a number of chemical techniques using metallic components, polymers, bioceramics, or composite materials. They are frequently designed or modified for medical uses, such as biomedical devices that perform, augment, or replace a natural function. Such functions may be benign, such as those utilized in heart valves, or bioactive, with more interactive functioning, such as hydroxylapatite-coated hip implants. Biomaterials are also employed in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery on a daily basis. For example, a construct containing impregnated pharmaceutical items can be implanted in the body, allowing for the continued release of a medicine over a long period of time. A biomaterial can also be an autograft, allograft, or xenograft that has been used as an organ transplant material.

Electronic, optical, and magnetic

Negative index metamaterial

Semiconductors, metals, and ceramics are being employed to create very complex systems such integrated electronic circuits, optoelectronic devices, and magnetic and optical mass storage media. Because these materials are the foundation of our modern computing world, research into them is critical.

Semiconductors are a well-known example of these materials. They are materials with properties that fall somewhere in the middle of conductors and insulators. Their electrical conductivities are particularly sensitive to impurity concentration, allowing doping to be used to achieve desirable electronic properties. As a result, semiconductors are the foundation of the typical computer.

This discipline also encompasses novel study topics such as superconducting materials, spintronics, metamaterials, and so on. The investigation of these materials necessitates understanding of materials science as well as solid-state physics or condensed matter physics.

Computational materials science

Simulating the behavior of materials has become possible due to ongoing advancements in computational capacity. This allows materials scientists to better understand behavior and mechanisms, build novel materials, and explain previously unknown features. Integrated computational materials engineering efforts are currently focusing on merging computational approaches with experiments to substantially minimize the time and effort required to optimize material properties for a given application. This entails modelling materials at all length scales using techniques such as density functional theory, molecular dynamics, Monte Carlo, dislocation dynamics, phase field, finite element, and others.

Industry

Although radical material discoveries can propel the development of new goods or even new sectors, stable industries frequently employ materials scientists to make gradual enhancements and fix concerns with existing materials. Materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial material production, processing methods (casting, rolling, welding, ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering, glassblowing, etc.), and analytic methods (characterization methods such as electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, calorimetry, nuclear microscopy (HEFIB), Rutherford backscattering, neutron diffraction, small-angle X-ray

In addition to material characterization, the material scientist or engineer is responsible for removing materials and transforming them into usable forms. Thus, ingot casting, foundry processes, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of a materials engineer's essential knowledge. The presence, absence, or fluctuation of minute amounts of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will frequently have a significant impact on the ultimate qualities of the materials generated. Steels, for example, are classed based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of carbon and other alloying components. Thus, the processes employed to extract and purify iron in a blast furnace might have an impact on the quality of steel produced.

Ceramics and glasses

Si₃N₄ ceramic bearing parts

Engineering ceramics are well-known for their stiffness and stability in high-temperature, compression, and electrical stress conditions. Alumina, silicon carbide, and tungsten carbide are created by sintering fine powders of their constituents with a binder. Material with a higher density is produced by hot pressing. A ceramic layer can be deposited on another material via chemical vapor deposition. Cermets are metal-containing ceramic particles. The wear resistance of tools is generated from cemented carbides, with cobalt and nickel metal phases often added to adjust characteristics.

Composites

A carbon filament 6 m in diameter (going from bottom left to top right) sits atop a much larger human hair.

Making composite materials is another industrial use of materials science. These are structured materials that are made up of two or more macroscopic phases.

Applications range from structural elements like steel-reinforced concrete to thermal insulating tiles, which are used in NASA's Space Shuttle thermal protection system to insulate the shuttle's surface from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC), a light gray material that can survive re-entry temperatures of up to 1,510 °C (2,750 °F) and covers the Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap, is one example. RCC is a laminated composite material constructed of graphite rayon fabric that has been treated with phenolic resin. Following autoclave curing at high temperatures, the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon, soaked with furfural alcohol in a vacuum chamber, then cured-pyrolized to convert the furfural alcohol to carbon. The outer layers of the RCC are transformed to silicon carbide to give oxidation resistance and reuse ability.

Other examples are the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell phones, and other electronic devices. These plastic shells are often constructed of a thermoplastic matrix, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), to which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibers, or carbon fibers have been added for strength, bulk, or electrostatic dispersion. Depending on their function, these additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibers or dispersants.

Polymers

The repeating unit of the polymer polypropylene

Expanded polystyrene polymer packaging

Polymers are chemical compounds composed of a large number of identical components connected together in the form of chains. They play an essential role in materials science. Polymers are the raw materials (resins) needed to manufacture what are popularly referred to as plastics and rubber. Plastics and rubber are the end result of adding one or more polymers or additives to a resin during production, which is subsequently formed into a final form. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and polycarbonates are examples of long-lasting plastics. Natural rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, chloroprene, and butadiene rubber are examples of long-lasting rubbers. Plastics are divided into three types: commodity, speciality, and engineering plastics.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is widely utilized, affordable, and produced in vast amounts on a yearly basis. It has a wide range of applications, including fake leather, electrical insulation and cabling, packaging, and containers. Its production and processing are straightforward and well-established. The large range of plasticisers and other chemicals that PVC accepts contributes to its adaptability. In polymer science, the term "additives" refers to the chemicals and compounds that are added to the polymer basis to affect its material properties.

Polycarbonate is typically regarded as an engineering plastic (other examples include PEEK, ABS). These plastics are renowned for their high tensile strength and other unique material features. Unlike commodity plastics, they are not typically used for disposable purposes.

Specialty plastics are materials that have special properties such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, and so forth.

The distinctions between different types of plastics are focused on their qualities and applications rather than their composition. Polyethylene (PE), for example, is a low-cost, low-friction polymer that is commonly used to make disposable shopping and trash bags. Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is used for underground gas and water pipes, and ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is an engineering plastic that is widely used as glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip joints.

Metal alloys

Wire rope made from steel alloy

Metal alloy research is an important aspect of materials science. Iron alloys (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) account for the lion's share of all metallic alloys in use today, both in terms of quantity and commercial value.

Low, mid, and high carbon steels are produced by alloying iron with varying concentrations of carbon. If the carbon level in an iron-carbon alloy is between 0.01 percent and 2.00 percent, it is considered steel. Steel hardness and tensile strength are proportional to the quantity of carbon present, with higher carbon levels resulting in lesser ductility and toughness. However, heat treatment methods such as quenching and tempering can drastically alter their properties. Cast iron is an iron–carbon alloy that has more than 2.00 percent but less than 6.67 percent carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a standard steel alloy with a Chromium alloying content greater than 10% by weight. Stainless steels commonly contain nickel and molybdenum.

Aluminium, titanium, copper, and magnesium alloys are among important metallic alloys. Copper alloys have been around for a long time (since the Bronze Age), however the alloys of the other three metals are very new. Because of the chemical sensitivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction procedures required were just recently developed. Aluminum, titanium, and magnesium alloys are also well-known and appreciated for their excellent strength-to-weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic shielding. These materials are appropriate for applications where high strength-to-weight ratios are more critical than bulk cost, such as the aerospace sector and some automotive engineering applications.

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are an important aspect of materials science. A semiconductor is a substance with a resistance between that of a metal and that of an insulator. Its electrical characteristics can be significantly altered by deliberately introducing impurities or doping. These semiconductor materials can be used to make diodes, transistors, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and analog and digital electric circuits, making them valuable materials in industry. In most applications, semiconductor devices have supplanted thermionic devices (vacuum tubes). Semiconductor devices are made as single discrete devices as well as integrated circuits (ICs), which are made up of a number of devices fabricated and coupled on a single semiconductor substrate, ranging from a few to millions.

Silicon accounts for the lion's share of all semiconductors in use today, both in terms of quantity and commercial value. Wafers used in the semiconductor and electronics industries are made from monocrystalline silicon. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is the second most often used semiconductor after silicon. It is a material of choice for high-speed electronics applications due to its higher electron mobility and saturation velocity when compared to silicon. These better features are persuasive justifications for using GaAs circuitry in mobile phones, satellite communications, microwave point-to-point networks, and higher frequency radar systems. Other semiconductor materials with diverse applications include germanium, silicon carbide, and gallium nitride.

Relation with other fields

Materials science evolved beginning in the 1950s, when it was recognized that in order to produce, discover, and design new materials, it was necessary to tackle the problem in a unified manner. Thus, materials science and engineering arose in a variety of ways, including renaming and/or combining existing metallurgy and ceramics engineering departments; splitting from existing solid state physics research (which grew into condensed matter physics); bringing in relatively new polymer engineering and polymer science; recombining from the previous, as well as chemistry, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering; and more.

The field of materials science and engineering is essential from both a scientific and an application standpoint. Engineers (or other applied areas) place a high value on materials since selecting the right materials is critical when designing systems. As a result, materials science is becoming a more crucial component of an engineer's curriculum.

The field is intrinsically interdisciplinary, and materials scientists and engineers must be aware of and employ the approaches of physicists, chemists, and engineers. As a result, there are still close ties with these fields. Because of the extensive overlaps across the areas, many physicists, chemists, and engineers end up working in materials science.

Emerging technologies

Subdisciplines

The three major kinds of materials give rise to the three main branches of materials science: ceramics, metals, and polymers.

Ceramic engineering

Metallurgy

Polymer science and polymer engineering

There are additionally broadly applicable, materials independent, endeavors.

Materials characterization

Computational materials science

Materials informatics

There are also rather broad focuses on certain phenomena and approaches across materials.

Crystallography

Nuclear spectroscopy

Surface science

Tribology

Related fields

Condensed matter physics

Mineralogy

Solid-state chemistry

Solid-state physics

Supramolecular chemistry

Professional societies

American Ceramic Society

ASM International

Association for Iron and Steel Technology

Materials Research Society

The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society

{End Chapter 6}

See also

Science portal

Engineering portal

Bio-based material

Bioplastic

Forensic materials engineering

List of emerging materials science technologies

List of materials science journals

List of materials analysis methods

Materials science in science fiction

Timeline of materials technology

References

Citations

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Smith, Cyril Stanley (1981). A Search for Structure. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262191913.

Martin, Joseph D. (2015). "What's in a Name Change? Solid State Physics, Condensed Matter Physics, and Materials Science" (PDF). Physics in Perspective. 17 (1): 3–32. Bibcode:2015PhP....17....3M. doi:10.1007/s00016-014-0151-7. S2CID 117809375.

"For Authors: Nature Materials" Archived 2010-08-01 at the Wayback Machine

Callister, Jr., Rethwisch. "Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction" (8th ed.). John Wiley and Sons, 2009 pp.5–6

Callister, Jr., Rethwisch. Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction (8th ed.). John Wiley and Sons, 2009 pp.10–12

A. Navrotsky (1998). "Energetics and Crystal Chemical Systematics among Ilmenite, Lithium Niobate, and Perovskite Structures". Chem. Mater. 10 (10): 2787–2793. doi:10.1021/cm9801901.

Cristina Buzea; Ivan Pacheco & Kevin Robbie (2007). "Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles: Sources and Toxicity". Biointerphases. 2 (4): MR17–MR71. arXiv:0801.3280. doi:10.1116/1.2815690. PMID 20419892. S2CID 35457219. Archived from the original on 2012-07-03.

Shelby, R. A.; Smith D.R.; Shultz S.; Nemat-Nasser S.C. (2001). "Microwave transmission through a two-dimensional, isotropic, left-handed metamaterial" (PDF). Applied Physics Letters. 78 (4): 489. Bibcode:2001ApPhL..78..489S. doi:10.1063/1.1343489. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 18, 2010.

Smith, D. R.; Padilla, WJ; Vier, DC; Nemat-Nasser, SC; Schultz, S (2000). "Composite Medium with Simultaneously Negative Permeability and Permittivity". Physical Review Letters. 84 (18): 4184–7. Bibcode:2000PhRvL..84.4184S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.4184. PMID 10990641.

"Semiconductor Industry Careers". 2013-09-06. Archived from the original on 2016-06-04. Retrieved 2016-05-15.

"Sto AG, Cabot Create Aerogel Insulation". Construction Digital. 15 November 2011. Archived from the original on 31 December 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

"Is graphene a miracle material?". BBC Click. 21 May 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

"Could graphene be the new silicon?". The Guardian. 13 November 2011. Archived from the original on 2 September 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

"Applications of Graphene under Development". understandingnano.com. Archived from the original on 2014-09-21.

"The 'new age' of super materials". BBC News. 5 March 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.

"Strides in Materials, but No Invisibility Cloak". The New York Times. 8 November 2010. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 21 April 2011.

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"Researchers One Step Closer to Building Synthetic Brain". Daily Tech. 25 April 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2011.

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Walker, P., ed. (1993). Chambers Dictionary of Materials Science and Technology. Chambers Publishing. ISBN 978-0-550-13249-9.

Further reading

Timeline of Materials Science at The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS) – accessed March 2007

Burns, G.; Glazer, A.M. (1990). Space Groups for Scientists and Engineers (2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-12-145761-7.

Cullity, B.D. (1978). Elements of X-Ray Diffraction (2nd ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-534-55396-8.

Giacovazzo, C; Monaco HL; Viterbo D; Scordari F; Gilli G; Zanotti G; Catti M (1992). Fundamentals of Crystallography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-855578-0.

Green, D.J.; Hannink, R.; Swain, M.V. (1989). Transformation Toughening of Ceramics. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-6594-2.

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Lovesey, S. W. (1984). Theory of Neutron Scattering from Condensed Matter; Volume 2: Condensed Matter. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852017-7.

O'Keeffe, M.; Hyde, B.G. (1996). Crystal Structures; I. Patterns and Symmetry. Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. 212. Washington, DC: Mineralogical Society of America, Monograph Series. p. 899. Bibcode:1997ZK....212..899K. doi:10.1524/zkri.1997.212.12.899. ISBN 978-0-939950-40-9.

Squires, G.L. (1996). Introduction to the Theory of Thermal Neutron Scattering (2nd ed.). Mineola, New York: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-69447-4.

Young, R.A., ed. (1993). The Rietveld Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press & International Union of Crystallography. ISBN 978-0-19-855577-3.

External links

MS&T conference organized by the main materials societies

MIT OpenCourseWare for MSE

Materials science at Curlie

Chapter 7: Materials science in science fiction

Materials science in science fiction is the study of how materials science is portrayed in works of science fiction. The accuracy of the materials science portrayed spans a wide range – sometimes it is an extrapolation of existing technology, sometimes it is a physically realistic portrayal of a far-out technology, and sometimes it is simply a plot device that looks scientific, but has no basis in science. Examples are:

Realistic case: In 1944, the science fiction story "Deadline" by Cleve Cartmill depicted the atomic bomb. The properties of various radioactive isotopes are critical to the proposed device, and the plot. This technology was real, unknown to the author.

Extrapolation: In the 1979 novel The Fountains of Paradise, Arthur C. Clarke wrote about space elevators - basically long cables extending from the Earth's surface to geosynchronous orbit. These require a material with enormous tensile strength and light weight. Carbon nanotubes are strong enough in theory, so the idea is plausible; while one cannot be built today, it violates no physical principles.

Plot device: An example of an unsupported plot device is scrith, the material used to construct Ringworld, in the novels by Larry Niven. Scrith possesses unreasonable strength, and is unsupported by physics as it is known, but needed for the plot.

Critical analysis of materials science in science fiction falls into the same general categories. The predictive aspects are emphasized, for example, in the motto of the Georgia Tech's department of materials science and engineering – Materials scientists lead the way in turning yesterday's science fiction into tomorrow's reality. This is also the theme of many technical articles, such as Material By Design: Future Science or Science Fiction?, found in IEEE Spectrum, the flagship magazine of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

On the other hand, there is criticism of the unrealistic materials science used in science fiction. In the professional materials science journal JOM, for example, there are articles such as The (Mostly Improbable) Materials Science and Engineering of the Star Wars Universe and Personification: The Materials Science and Engineering of Humanoid Robots.

Examples

In numerous situations, the materials science portion of a fictional work has piqued the curiosity of someone other than the author. Here are some of these instances, as well as their relevance to real-world materials science applications, if any.

{End Chapter 7}

See also

Science in science fiction

Hypothetical types of biochemistry. Most of these potential types of biochemistry have been used in science fiction.

Unobtainium

List of fictional elements, materials, isotopes and atomic particles

Category:Fictional materials

Category:Physics in fiction

References

CARTMILL, CLEVE. "Deadline." IN: Astounding Science Fiction, Vol. XXXIII, No. l, pp. 154–178. New York: Street & Smith, March 1944.

"Atomic Energy Collection Section 15. Fiction, Poetry, Drama, etc., 1912–1989". Archived from the original on 2007-11-02. Retrieved 2007-10-29.

Dexter Johnson (August 2007). "Material By Design: Future Science or Science Fiction?". IEEE Spectrum. Archived from the original on 2008-07-20. Retrieved 2007-10-29.

Maureen Byko (2005). "The (Mostly Improbable) Materials Science and Engineering of the Star Wars Universe". JOM. 57 (5): 12–18. Bibcode:2005JOM....57e..12.. doi:10.1007/s11837-005-0090-5. S2CID 189947242.

Maureen Byko (November 2003). "Personification: The Materials Science and Engineering of Humanoid Robots". JOM. 55 (11): 14–19. Bibcode:2003JOM....55k..14B. doi:10.1007/s11837-003-0202-z. S2CID 137241101.

"New plastic is strong as steel, transparent". PhysOrg. October 4, 2007. Retrieved October 5, 2011.

"Did You Know?: The Shadow (1994)". IMDb.com. IMDb.com, Inc. Retrieved 6 July 2012.

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Epilogue

One Billion Knowledgeable

We are living in a society dominated by change. The technological, economical, and social evolution has shaped people’s way of living and thinking. The globalized markets, the technical revolutions are transforming the modern economy into a “knowledge-based society”, in which new ways of organizing the work are governing the world, demanding a perpetual buildup of competences, a rapid spread of high-performance technologies, solid knowledge and increasing responsibilities.

In the society of the future, knowledge will play the key part in the way of life specific to this knowledge-based society. Introducing in the knowledge is a prerequisite of national cultural success, as much as it is also a prerequisite of economic competitiveness. The real knowledge-based society, as an expression of the globalized society, tries to connect the needs of human nature, ever growing and more and more diversified, with its own regeneration, coming up with ways of developing the inexhaustible resources – the human intelligence, the innovative spirit, the associative creativeness, etc.

THE PROBLEM: Ignorance is the Root of all Evil

The problem I am trying to solve is the ignorance, which is having or showing a lack of necessary knowledge or understanding of what is happening around.

Ignorance + Poverty = Crime

Ignorance + Richness = Corruption

Ignorance + Freedom = Chaos

Ignorance + Authority = Tyranny

Ignorance + Religion = Terrorism

But if you replace 'Ignorance' with 'Knowledge':

Knowledge + Poverty = Satisfaction

Knowledge + Richness = Creativity

Knowledge + Freedom = Happiness

Knowledge + Authority = Justice

Knowledge + Religion = Integrity

So, I once asked myself a question, If I could change only ONE aspect of the world to make it a better place, what would that be? I reached a conclusion that it would be making the people more knowledgeable. I felt like this aspect could have the power to social change for a better world.

Ignorance may not be the root of all evil. Evil can be committed with many different types of agendas. BUT ignorance is definitely a good answer as to why evil remains, and sometimes ignorance is the direct root cause.

Most people believe knowledge is power and that success depends on how much a person knows. Knowledge is power, but knowledge without action can be useless, we gain knowledge by taking action, without action, knowledge is useless, and knowledge is not necessarily understanding.

Imagine you have a bucket. If every time, you tried to fill this bucket, 90% of the water leaked out, you probably would not fill this bucket until the leak is fixed. All the reading you do, is like filling a bucket which leaks 90% of the water. You only retain 10% of what you read may be after 24-hour period. Knowledge is power, but you are wasting time acquiring it if you retain very little of it. This the key finding behind the study that produced the learning pyramid.

Figure 6: The Pyramid Learning

THE SOLUTION: 1BK Community

So, if people are knowledgeable and can retain their knowledge by reading, listening, and watching, and ultimately to teach others to become more knowledgeable; we will drain out most of the roots of the evil in this world.

This mission may be the most important of our time. Together we can make this happen. This mission is my attempt to fulfill the task to change only ONE aspect of the world to try to make it a better place.

Sharing knowledge has a great positive impact, so I took an ambitious mission: To help one billion people become more knowledgeable. #1BK is a community, I ask you to join, so together we can create a large global community to make the world better place, to fight ignorance by making you, more knowledgeable, deeply aware, well informed, broadly learned, and wonderfully cultivated so people are drawn to you for their own enlightenment.

The spirit of the One Billion Knowledgeable movement is to give ideas a practical, and useful form in the life of the world nations and the people. So, I took on an ambitious mission to help one billion persons to be more knowledgeable, a One Billion Knowledgeable movement that I ask you to join so that together we can create a global community of knowledgeable persons.

THE APPROACH: 1BK Factory

Attracting 'knowledge producers' for average subjects and sophisticated ones and help them to produce knowledge in every possible format; and in every possible language, translating to 100+ languages; and in every possible channel; e-books and audio books marketplaces. This will save their time and effort, to focus on more knowledge.

Attracting 'knowledge contributors' to contribute in many tasks, translation, narration, and illustration.

The platform is a must to govern the process between producers, contributors, and 'Knowledge Consumers'; and offers incentives to produce more than consume knowledge.

The cycle will continue, and every person can be a producer, contributor, or consumer.

If every member can convince 10 persons to join, surely, the community will reach 1 billion in 10 years.

Building the 'Knowledge Factory' by software, automation and systems, to produce knowledge content in every language and in every format, and distribute to many channels, and to have an online presence; website, social media, etc... to be in every language, with a local community in every city.

THE ACTION: 1BK Moonshot

When humans launched a craft to the space to put a man on the moon, they did not know they will succeed, but, surely, had enough passion for it. A moonshot is committing to solving a problem before you know you can make it happen. #1BK is a moonshot, and together we can make it happen.

Encouraging the knowledge consumers to become knowledge producers, and knowledge contributors, and earn more funds in the e-wallet.

Join the movement at www.1BKOfficial.org by following three simple steps:

Step 1: Make knowledge your priority and recognize that being knowledgeable is your birthright and invest in your knowledge by exploring the One Billion Knowledgeable resources to develop your passion to knowledge.

Step 2: Participate by promoting and improving the knowledge of the One Billion Knowledgeable initiative and creating new knowledge in all fields, in all formats, and in all languages, simple enough for ordinary people to become familiar, and detailed enough to make experienced professional more enlightened.

Step 3: Share the message, pay it forward, tell ten people about the message that you have learned on www.1BKOfficial.org, who will tell ten people, who will tell ten people, and in less than ten years, the community will have one billion knowledgeable.

This mission may be the most important of our time, and It is not crazy, together we can make this happen. I am going to tell the world that my priority is to be knowledgeable, and I am going to have the compassion inside me to make others more knowledgeable as this One Billion Knowledgeable mission is at the most pivotal time of humanity because we need the knowledgeable persons to see things differently, to change things to the better, push the human race forward, and lead the world to the enlightenment.

About the Author

Fouad Sabry is the former Regional Head of Business Development for Applications at HP in Southern Europe, Middle East, and Africa (SEMEA). Fouad has received his B.Sc. of Computer Systems and Automatic Control in 1996, dual master’s degrees from University of Melbourne (UoM) in Australia, Master of Business Administration (MBA) in 2008, and Master of Management in Information Technology (MMIT) in 2010.

Fouad has more than 20 years of experience in Information Technology and Telecommunications fields, working in local, regional, and international companies, such as Vodafone and IBM in Middle East and Africa (MEA) region. Fouad joined HP Middle East (ME), based in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 2013 and helped develop the software business in tens of markets across Southern Europe, Middle East, and Africa (SEMEA) regions. Currently, Fouad is an entrepreneur, author, futurist, focused on Emerging Technologies, and Industry Solutions, and founder of One Billion Knowledgeable (1BK) Initiative.

Where to Find the Author Online

Website: www.1bkofficial.org
Twitter: @fouadsabry
Facebook: www.facebook.com/OfficialFouadSabry
LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/in/fouadsabry/
Blog: https://medium.com/@fouadsabry

Coming Soon

Emerging technologies are those technical innovations that represent progressive innovations within a field for competitive advantage.

Emerging technologies typically go through the following sequential stages:

1 - Hypothetical

2 - Research and development / experimental / trial projects

3 - Working demonstrators

4 - Commercialization / diffusion

The appendices for emerging technologies for each industry will give you a glimpse about the coming books.

Appendices: Emerging Technologies in Each Industry

Appendix 1: Emerging Technologies in Agriculture

Agricultural Robotics

Status:

Research

Development

Trial Projects

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Agricultural Drone

Closed Ecological Systems

Status:

Research

Development

Working demonstrators (e.g., Biosphere 2)

Potential Applications:

Agriculture

Scientific Research

Space Colonization

Related Technologies:

Greenhouse

Biosphere 2

Eden Project

Bio-Shelter

Seawater Greenhouse

Perpetual Harvest Greenhouse System

Cultured Meat

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Humane

Resource-Efficient

Healthier and Cheaper Meat

Related Technologies:

New Harvest

Vertical Farming

Status:

Research

Development

Experiments

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Crop and Meat Production

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 2: Emerging Technologies in Aviation

Neural-Sensing Headset

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Assisting Pilots

Related Technologies:

Trans-Cranial Neural Sensing and Characterization

Brain–Computer Interface

Neuro-Prosthetics

Ion Propulsion

Status:

In Use

Potential Applications:

Spacecraft Propulsion

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable      

Plasma Propulsion

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Spacecraft Propulsion

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable      

Automatic Visual Inspection of Aircraft

Status:

Research

Development

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Aircraft Maintenance, Repair and Operations

Related Technologies:

Airbus

Donecle

HAL

A*STAR

Appendix 3: Emerging Technologies in Construction

Claytronics

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiment

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Four-Dimensional Printing

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Molecular Assembler

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiment

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Replicator (Star Trek)

Von Neumann Universal Constructor

Utility Fog

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiment

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 4: Emerging Technologies in Architecture

Arcology

Status:

Research

Development

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Domed City

Status:

In Progress

Potential Applications:

Weather-Controlled City

Colonization of other bodies

Dubai Mall of the World Project

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 5: Emerging Technologies in Materials

Aerogel

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiments

Diffusion

Early Uses

Potential Applications:

Improved insulation

Insulative glass if clear

Sleeves for oil pipelines

Aerospace

High-heat applications

Extreme cold applications

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Amorphous Metal

Status:

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Armor

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Bioplastic

Status:

Commercialization

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Recyclable Packaging

Single-Use Items

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Conductive Polymers

Status:

Research

Experiments

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Lighter and Cheaper Wires

Antistatic Materials

Organic Solar Cells

Related Technologies:

Jacquard Weaving

Cryogenic Treatment

Status:

Research, Experiments

prototypes

Potential Applications:

Oil and gas Blowout preventers (BOP)

Jet engines

Power turbines

Locomotives

Electric vehicles

Gears

Bearings

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Dynamic Armor

Status:

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Better protection for ships from shaped charge weapons

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Fullerene

Status:

Experiments

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Programmable matter

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Graphene

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiments

Diffusion

Early uses

Potential Applications:

Components with higher strength to weight ratios

Transistors that operate at higher frequency

Lower cost of display screens in mobile devices

Storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars

Sensors to diagnose diseases

More efficient batteries

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Lab-On-A-Chip

Status:

Some commercialization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

High-Temperature Superconductivity

Status:

Hypothetical

Prototype

Experiments

Potential Applications:

No loss conductors

Frictionless bearings

Magnetic levitation

Lossless high-capacity accumulators

Electric cars

Heat-free integral circuits

Processors

Related Technologies:

Cryogenic receiver front-end (CRFE) RF

Microwave filter systems for mobile phone base stations

Prototypes in dry ice

Hypothetical and experiments for higher temperatures

Magnetic Nanoparticles

Status:

In development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Magnetorheological Fluid

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Magnetorheological damper heavy motor damping

Operator seat/cab damping in construction vehicles

Seismic dampers positioned in building absorbing detrimental shock waves and oscillations within the structure making them earthquake-proof

Enhance body armor fluid bullet resistant

Humvees

Various other all-terrain vehicles employ dynamic MR shock absorbers / dampers.

Magnetorheological finishing was used in the construction of the Hubble Space Telescope's corrective lens

Shock absorbers of a vehicle's suspension are filled with magnetorheological fluid.

Related Technologies:

Electrorheological fluid

Microfluidics

Status:

Not Applicable

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

High-Temperature Superfluidity

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Superfluid gyroscopes functions at extremely low temperatures

High-precision measure of gravity

Navigation and maneuver devices,

Possible devices to emit gravitomagnetic field

Frictionless mechanical devices

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Metamaterials

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiments

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Microscopes

Cameras

Metamaterial cloaking

Cloaking devices

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Metal Foam

Status:

Research

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Space colonies

Floating cities

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Multi-Function Structures

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiments

Prototypes

Few commercial

Potential Applications:

Self-health monitoring

Self-healing material

Morphing

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Nanomaterials: Carbon Nanotubes

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiments

Diffusion

Early uses

Potential Applications:

Stronger, and lighter materials

Space elevator

Related Technologies:

Carbon nanotubes

Carbon fiber

Programmable Matter

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Claytronics

Synthetic biology

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Quantum Dots

Status:

Research

Experiments

Prototypes

Commercialized

Potential Applications:

Quantum dot laser

Quantum dot display

Future use as programmable matter in display technologies (TV, projection)

Optical data communications (high-speed data transmission)

Medicine (laser scalpel)

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Silicene

Status:

Hypothetical

Research

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Superalloy

Status:

Research

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Aircraft jet engines

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Synthetic Diamond

Status:

Research

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Electronics

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Time Crystals

Status:

Research

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Quantum computers with stable qubits

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Translucent Concrete

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Construction of skyscrapers

Towers

Sculptures like Europe Gate

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Hypereutectic Alloy

Status:

Research

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Metals

Related Technologies:

Hypereutectic Piston

Super-Plastic Alloy

Status:

Research

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Metals

Related Technologies:

Super-Plasticity

Appendix 6: Emerging Technologies in Optoelectronics

Drone Display

Status:

Commercialization

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Artistic uses

Advertising

Related Technologies:

Swarm Robotics

Flexible Display

Status:

Research

Commercialization

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Displays over curved surfaces

Electronic scrolls

Wearable technology

Related Technologies:

Electronic Paper

3D Displays and Volumetric Display

Status:

Research

Prototypes

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Television

Computer interfaces

Cinemas

3-dimensional imagery

Related Technologies:

Autostereoscopic display

Stereoscopic display

Volumetric display

Holographic display

Light Field display

Nintendo 3DS

Swept-volume display

Laser Video Displays

Status:

Commercialization

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

First commercial Laser TV in 2008

Mitsubishi LaserVue TV

Displays with very wide color gamut

Related Technologies:

Laser TV

Holography 

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Holographic Display

Computer-Generated Holography

Optical Transistor

Status:

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Screenless display

Status:

Hypothetical

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Virtual retinal display

Bionic contact lens

Augmented reality

Virtual reality

Augmented reality could allow the user to reference the blueprints like in a construction yard, in a 3D manner

Delivers the user constant up to date information on the stock market, the user's corporation, and meeting statuses

Visual disabilities

Related Technologies:

Head-mounted display

Head-up display

Adaptive optics

EyeTap

Google Glass

Microsoft HoloLens

AR cloud

Appendix 7: Emerging Technologies in Electronics

Biometrics

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Digital Scent Technology

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Smell-O-Vision

iSmell

Electronic Nose

Status:

Research

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Detecting spoiled food

Chemical weapons

Cancer

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

E-Textiles

Status:

Research

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Flexible Electronics

Status:

Commercialization

Research

Development

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Flexible and folding electronic devices (such as smartphones)

Flexible solar cells which are lightweight, can be rolled up for launch, and are easily deployable

Related Technologies:

Nokia Morph

Flexible organic light-emitting diode

Memristor

Status:

Prototype

Potential Applications:

Smaller, faster, lower power consuming storage

Analogue electronics

programmable logic

Signal processing

Neural networks

Control systems

Reconfigurable computing

Brain-computer interfaces

RFID

Pattern recognition

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Molecular Electronics

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Nanoelectromechanical Systems

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Solid-State Transformer

Status:

Development

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Spintronics

Status:

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Data storage

Computing devices

Related Technologies:

MRAM

Thermal Copper Pillar Bump

Status:

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Electric circuit cooling

Micro-fluidic actuators

Small-device thermoelectric power generation

Related Technologies:

Ultra-high-definition holographic disc

Metal–insulator transition

Three-Dimensional Integrated Circuit

Status:

Development

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Memory processing

Data processing

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Twistronics

Status:

Development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 8: Emerging Technologies in Energy

Airborne Wind Turbine

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Producing electricity

Related Technologies:

KiteGen

Americium Battery

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Estimated of working battery in 5–10 years from 2019.

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Artificial Photosynthesis

Status:

Research

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Growing interest in a macro-science global project

Improve natural photosynthesis, so roads buildings and vehicles convert sunlight and water into hydrogen and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates

Related Technologies:

Sustainocene

Renewable energy

Nanotechnology

Concentrated Solar Power

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Growing markets in California, Spain, Northern Africa

Producing electricity

Related Technologies:

DESERTEC

BrightSource Energy

Solar Millennium

Cryogenic Treatment

Status:

Prototype

Potential Applications:

Subsea and deep-water oil and gas exploration

wind and fossil fuel electric power generation

nuclear power

Oil and gas blowout preventers (BOP)

Jet engines

Power turbines

Locomotives

Electric vehicles

Gears and bearings

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Electric Double-Layer Capacitor

Status:

Diffusion, continued development

Potential Applications:

Regenerative braking

energy storage: generally faster charging, longer lasting, more flexible greener

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Energy Harvesting

Status:

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Constant Energy Source For Mobile

Wearable And Ubiquitous Devices

Related Technologies:

Humavox

Flywheel Energy Storage

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Fusion Power

Status:

Research

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Producing electricity, heat, fusion torch recycling with waste heat

Related Technologies:

ITER

NIF

Wendelstein 7-X

Magnetic Confinement Fusion

Dense Plasma Focus

Muon-Catalyzed Fusion

Generation IV Nuclear Reactor

Status:

Research

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Producing electricity

Heat

Transmutation of nuclear waste stockpiles from traditional reactors

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Gravity Battery

Status:

Prototype

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Grid Energy Storage

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Home Fuel Cell

Status:

Research

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Off-The-Grid

Producing Electricity In Using An Environmentally Friendly Fuel As A Backup During Long Term Power Failures.

Related Technologies:

Autonomous Building

Bloom Energy Server

Hypercapacitor

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Lithium-Air Battery

Status:

Research, experiments

Potential Applications:

Laptops, mobile phones, long-range electric cars; storing energy for electric grid

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Lithium–Sulfur Battery

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Magnesium Battery

Status:

Early commercialization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Magnonics

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Data storage

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Molten Salt Reactor

Status:

Research, experiments

Potential Applications:

Producing electricity, heat

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Nanowire Battery

Status:

Experiments, prototypes

Potential Applications:

Laptops, mobile phones, long-range electric cars; storing energy for electric grid

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Nantenna

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Producing electricity

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Status:

Prototype

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Solid-State Battery

Status:

Niche uses

Potential Applications:

Hybrid cars

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Smart Grid

Status:

Research, diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Smart meter, SuperSmart Grid

Space-Based Solar Power

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Thorium Nuclear Fuel Cycle

Status:

Research started in the 1960s, still ongoing

Potential Applications:

Producing electricity, heat

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Vortex Engine

Status:

Not Applicable

Potential Applications:

Power generation.

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Wireless Energy Transfer

Status:

Prototypes, diffusion, short range consumer products

Potential Applications:

Wirelessly powered equipment: laptop, cell phones, electric cars, etc.

Related Technologies:

WiTricity, resonant inductive coupling

Zero-Energy Building

Status:

Expansion

Potential Applications:

All homes

Related Technologies:

Passive house

Appendix 9: Emerging Technologies in Entertainment

Computer-Generated Imagery

Status:

Developing

Potential Applications:

Films, photos

Related Technologies:

Deepfake, StyleGAN, DeepDream

Immersive Virtual Reality

Status:

Hypothetical, limited commercialization

Potential Applications:

An artificial environment where the user feels just as immersed as they usually feel in conscious reality.

Related Technologies:

Virtusphere, 3rd Space Vest, haptic suit, immersive technology, simulated reality, holodeck (fictional)

Ultra-High-Definition Television

Status:

Commercialized

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 10: Emerging Technologies in Telecommunications

5G Cellular Communications

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Mobile phones, Tablets

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

6G Cellular Communications

Status:

Conceptual

Potential Applications:

Mobile phones

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Li-Fi

Status:

Demos, requires standardization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Nanoradio

Status:

Research & Development, diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Navigation Doppler Lidar

Status:

Under development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Quantum Radar

Status:

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Radio-Frequency Identification

Status:

Diffusion of high cost

Potential Applications:

Smartstores – RFID based self-checkout (keeping track of all incoming and outgoing products), food packaging, smart shelves, smart carts. See: potential uses

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Software-Defined Radio

Status:

Development, commercialization

Potential Applications:

Cognitive radio, Mesh networks, Software defined antenna

Related Technologies:

GNU Radio, List of software-defined radios, Universal Software Radio Peripheral

X-Ray Communication

Status:

Demonstrations

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 11: Emerging Technologies in Information Technology

Ambient Intelligence

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Artificial Brain

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Treatment of neurological disease, artificial intelligence

Related Technologies:

Blue Brain Project, Human Brain Project

Artificial General Intelligence

Status:

Hypothetical, experiments

Potential Applications:

Creating intelligent devices and robots; AI can counsel (or even take charge) in scientific projects, government, army, corporate governance, film and books creation, inventions etc.

Related Technologies:

Progress in artificial intelligence, technological singularity, applications of artificial intelligence,

Atomtronics

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Augmented Reality

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Google Glass, Windows Mixed Reality, Microsoft HoloLens, Mixed reality, Smartglasses, Pokémon Go

Blockchain Or Distributed Ledger Technology

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Eliminating or lowering transaction costs; distributed, open and transparent record keeping; non-hierarchical networked systems; cryptography

Related Technologies:

Bitcoin, Digital currency, Cryptocurrency, e-democracy

Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Extending Moore's law

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Civic Technology

Status:

Research and development, projects

Potential Applications:

Smart cities, more responsive government

Related Technologies:

Civic technology, Smart city, e-democracy, open data, intelligent environment

Cryptocurrency

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Money supply, World reserve currency

Related Technologies:

Bitcoin, Digital currency

DNA Digital Data Storage

Status:

Experiments

Potential Applications:

Mass data storage

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Exascale Computing

Status:

Projects

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Gesture Recognition

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Internet Of Things

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Emerging Memory Technologies

Status:

In development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

T-RAM, memristor, Z-RAM, TTRAM, CBRAM, SONOS, RRAM, Racetrack memory, NRAM, Phase-change memory, FJG RAM, Millipede memory, Skyrmion, Programmable metallization cell, 3D XPoint, Ferroelectric RAM, Magnetoresistive random-access memory, nvSRAM

Emerging Magnetic Data Storage Technologies

Status:

In development (HAMR, BPM); diffusion (SMR)

Potential Applications:

Greatly improved storage density compared to current HDDs, can be combined

Related Technologies:

SMR, HAMR, BPM, MAMR, TDMR, CPP/GMR, PMR, Hard disk drive

Fourth-Generation Optical Discs (3D Optical Data Storage, Holographic Data Storage)

Status:

Research, prototyping

Potential Applications:

Storing and archiving data previously erased for economic reasons

Related Technologies:

Blu-ray Disc, Optical storage

General-Purpose Computing On Graphics Processing Units

Status:

Diffusion of non standardized methods

Potential Applications:

Order of magnitude faster processing of parallelizable algorithms

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Exocortex

Status:

Diffusion of primitive amplifications; working prototypes of more; Hypothetical, experiments on more substantial amplification

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Machine Translation

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Easier and cheaper cross-cultural communication

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Machine Vision

Status:

Research, prototyping, commercialization

Potential Applications:

Biometrics, controlling processes (e.g., in driverless car, automated guided vehicle), detecting events (e.g., in visual surveillance), interaction (e.g., in human-computer interaction), robot vision

Related Technologies:

Computer vision, pattern recognition, digital image processing

Mobile Collaboration And E-Learning

Status:

Development, commercialization

Potential Applications:

Extends the capabilities of video conferencing for use on hand-held mobile devices in real-time over secure networks. For use in diverse industries such as manufacturing, energy, healthcare. Telework

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Multimodal Contactless Biometric Face/Iris Systems

Status:

Deployed at various airports and federal security checkpoints

Potential Applications:

Unimodal facial recognition scanners

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Neuromorphic Engineering

Status:

Research & development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Optical Computing

Status:

Hypothetical, experiments; some components of integrated circuits have been developed

Potential Applications:

Smaller, faster, lower power consuming computing

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Quantum Computing

Status:

Hypothetical, experiments, commercialization

Potential Applications:

Much faster computing, for some kinds of problems, chemical modeling, new materials with programmed properties, Hypothetical of high-temperature superconductivity and superfluidity

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Quantum Cryptography

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Secure communications

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Semantic Web Or Answer Machine

Status:

Research, limited use

Potential Applications:

Making the web machine-readable by annotating data on the web based on its meaning

Related Technologies:

Corporate Semantic Web, Semantic Web Services, Semantic Web Stack, Web 3.0

Smart Speaker

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Home automation, communication with people and machines

Related Technologies:

Amazon Echo, Google Home, HomePod

Speech Recognition

Status:

Research, development, commercialization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Subvocal Recognition

Status:

Research, development, commercialization

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Virtual Reality

Status:

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Entertainment, education

Related Technologies:

Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, PlayStation VR

Hybrid Forensics

Status:

Research, commercialization

Potential Applications:

digital forensics, electronic discovery, malware detection, IT compliance

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 12: Emerging Technologies in Medical

Artificial Uterus

Status:

Hypothetical, research

Potential Applications:

space travel, extracorporeal pregnancy, Reprogenetics, same-sex procreation

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Body Implants, Prosthesis

Status:

Trials, from animal (e.g., brain implants) to human clinical (e.g., insulin pump implant), to commercial production (e.g. pacemaker, joint replacement, cochlear implant)

Potential Applications:

Brain implant, retinal implant

Related Technologies:

Prosthetics, prosthetics in fiction, cyborg

Cryonics

Status:

Hypothetical, research, commercialization (e.g. Alcor, Cryonics Institute)

Potential Applications:

Life extension

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

De-Extinction

Status:

Research, development, trials

Potential Applications:

Animal husbandry, pets, zoos

Related Technologies:

Recreating the woolly mammoth species

Human DNA Vaccination

Status:

Clinical trials

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Enzybiotics

Status:

Successful first trials

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Genetic Engineering Of Organisms And Viruses

Status:

Research, development, commercialization

Potential Applications:

Creating and modifying species (mainly improving their physical and mental capabilities), bio-machines, eliminating genetic disorders (gene therapy), new materials production, healthier and cheaper food, creating drugs and vaccines, research in natural sciences, bioremediation, detecting arsenic, CO2 reducing superplant

Related Technologies:

Biopunk, Genetically modified food, superhuman, human enhancement, transhumanism, gene doping, designer baby, genetic pollution

Hibernation Or Suspended Animation

Status:

Research, development, animal trials

Potential Applications:

Organ transplantation, space travel, prolonged surgery, emergency care

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Life Extension, Strategies For Engineered Negligible Senescence

Status:

Research, experiments, animal testing

Potential Applications:

Increased life spans

Related Technologies:

Immortality, biological immortality

Nanomedicine

Status:

Research, experiments, limited use

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Nanosensors

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Omni Processor

Status:

Research and development; some prototypes

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Oncolytic Virus

Status:

Human trials (Talimogene laherparepvec, reolysin, JX-594), commercialisation (H101)

Potential Applications:

Cancer therapy, imaging

Related Technologies:

Oncolytic virus

Personalized Medicine, Full Genome Sequencing

Status:

Research, experiments

Potential Applications:

Personalized medical procedures, genome sequencing during drug trials

Related Technologies:

Personal genomics

Phage Therapy

Status:

First trial uses

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Plantibody

Status:

clinical trials

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Regenerative Medicine

Status:

Some laboratory trials

Potential Applications:

Life extension

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Robotic Surgery

Status:

Research, diffusion

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Senolytic

Status:

Under investigation

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Stem Cell Treatments

Status:

Research, experiments, phase I human trial spinal cord injury treatment (GERON), cultured cornea transplants

Potential Applications:

Treatment for a wide range of diseases and injuries

Related Technologies:

Stem cell, stem cell treatments, Skin cell gun,

Synthetic Biology, Synthetic Genomics

Status:

Research, development, first synthetic bacteria created May 2010

Potential Applications:

Creating infinitely scalable production processes based on programmable species of bacteria and other life forms

Related Technologies:

BioBrick, iGEM, synthetic genomics

Tissue Engineering

Status:

Research, diffusion

Potential Applications:

Organ printing, Tooth regeneration

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Tricorder

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Diagnosing medical conditions

Related Technologies:

Medical tricorder

Virotherapy

Status:

Research, human trials

Potential Applications:

Gene therapy, cancer therapy

Related Technologies:

Virotherapy, Oncolytic Virus

Vitrification Or Cryoprotectant

Status:

Hypothetical, some experiments

Potential Applications:

Organ transplantation, cryonics

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 13: Emerging Technologies in Neuroscience

Brain-Computer Interface

Status:

Research and commercialization

Potential Applications:

Faster communication and learning and "more real" entertainment (generation of feelings and information in brain on-demand). Control emotions in the mentally ill

Related Technologies:

Experience machine, Neuralink, Stent-electrode recording array

Brain-Reading, Neuroinformatics

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Electroencephalography

Status:

Research, diffusion

Potential Applications:

Controlling electronic devices via brain waves

Related Technologies:

BrainGate

Head Transplant

Status:

Success in animal experiments, including 2-headed result; human surgery as early as 2019

Potential Applications:

Treat debilitating disease or horrible disfigurement

Related Technologies:

Brain transplant, hand transplantation, organ transplantation

Neuroprosthetics

Status:

Not Applicable

Potential Applications:

Visual prosthesis, brain implant, exocortex, retinal implant, neurograin

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Sonogenetics

Status:

Research; experimentation

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Appendix 14: Emerging Technologies in Military

Caseless Ammunition

Status:

Field tests and some niche markets

Potential Applications:

Warfare

Related Technologies:

Lightweight Small Arms Technologies

Cloaking Device

Status:

Successful experiments cloaking small objects under some conditions

Potential Applications:

Cloaking microscope tips at optical frequencies

Related Technologies:

Metamaterial cloaking

Directed Energy Weapon

Status:

Research, development, some prototypes

Potential Applications:

Warfare

Related Technologies:

Laser Weapon System

Electrolaser

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Electromagnetic Weapons

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Warfare

Related Technologies:

Coilgun, Railgun

Electrothermal-Chemical Technology

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Tank, artillery, and close-in weapon systems

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Force Field

Status:

Hypothetical, experiments

Potential Applications:

Military and law enforcement, space travel

Related Technologies:

Plasma window

Green Bullet

Status:

Development

Potential Applications:

Environment-friendly ammunition

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Hypersonic Cruise Missile

Status:

In development

Potential Applications:

Glide vehicles and cruise missiles that can go 5 times the speed of sound or more.

Related Technologies:

Avangard, Kinzhal, Zircon, BrahMos-II, Prompt Global Strike, DARPA Falcon Project, DF-ZF, Boeing X-51 Waverider

Laser Weapon

Status:

Research and development, trials

Potential Applications:

Tracking and destruction of rockets, bombs, drones etc.

Related Technologies:

Advanced Tactical Laser, High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System

MAHEM

Status:

Research, In development

Potential Applications:

An alternative formed penetrator that could replace self-forging explosives with molten metal to penetrate enemy armor.

Related Technologies:

Explosively pumped flux compression generator

Particle-Beam Weapon

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Strategic Defense Initiative

Plasma Weapon

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Precision-Guided Firearm

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Warfare

Related Technologies:

EXACTO, Smart bullet

Pure Fusion Weapon

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Sonic Weapon

Status:

Research, Development, Commercialization

Potential Applications:

A weapon that can be used to either disorient, incapacitate, or kill an adversary through sound, infrasound, or ultrasound.

Related Technologies:

Long Range Acoustic Device

Stealth Technology

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Electronic countermeasures

Related Technologies:

Plasma stealth, Stealth aircraft, Radar-absorbent material

Telescoped Ammunition

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

A type of ammunition that envelopes a bullet with powder charge and encases it in a cartridge.

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Lightweight Small Arms Technologies Program

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Warfare

Related Technologies:

lethal autonomous weapon

Appendix 15: Emerging Technologies in Space

Artificial Gravity

Status:

Research and development

Potential Applications:

Space Travel

Related Technologies:

Spin gravity

Asteroid Mining

Status:

Hypothetical, NASA has announced plans to capture and redirect an asteroid.

Potential Applications:

Commerce, resource supply

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Hypertelescope

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Astronomy

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Starshot

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Uncrewed interstellar probes

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Stasis Chamber

Status:

Experimental, Research and development

Potential Applications:

Interplanetary space travel, interstellar space travel, medical

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Solar Gravitational Lens

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Deep space observation

Related Technologies:

FOCAL

Inflatable Space Habitat

Status:

Developed, prototypes built and tested

Potential Applications:

Space habitats

Related Technologies:

Bigelow Aerospace

Miniaturized Satellite

Status:

Development, early commercialization, diffusion

Potential Applications:

Inexpensive satellites, constellations for low data rate communications, using formations to gather data from multiple points, in-orbit inspection of larger satellites.

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Reusable Rocket Technology For Orbital Rockets

Status:

Several companies, including Blue Origin and SpaceX, are developing the technologies.

Potential Applications:

Expendable launch vehicles may become cost prohibitive except for national government or military missions.

Related Technologies:

New Glenn, SpaceX Starship

Appendix 16: Emerging Technologies in Robotics

Android, Gynoid

Status:

Research, development, prototypes, diffusion, commercializing

Potential Applications:

Disabled, infant and older people care, housekeeping, sex-worker, flight-attendant, model, hostess, waiter, security guard

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Gastrobot

Status:

Some prototypes

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Molecular Nanotechnology, Nanorobotics

Status:

Hypothetical, experiments

Potential Applications:

Machines (desktop, industrial) that can make anything given the materials (e.g., Rotimatic), cheap planetary terraforming

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Powered Exoskeleton

Status:

Research, development, prototypes, diffusion, commercializing

Potential Applications:

Heavy lifting, paralysis, muscle related diseases, warfare, construction, firefighting, care for the elderly and disabled.

Related Technologies:

LOPES (exoskeleton), ReWalk, Human Universal Load Carrier, fictional armor Iron Man's armor, Future Force Warrior

Self-Reconfiguring Modular Robot

Status:

Hypothetical, experiments, early prototypes

Potential Applications:

As a universal physical machine, SRCMR may change the way we make many physical structures and machines

Related Technologies:

Robot, swarm robotics, autonomous research robot

Swarm Robotics

Status:

Hypothetical, experiments

Potential Applications:

Autonomous construction, space construction

Related Technologies:

Swarm intelligence, autonomous robotics, nanorobotics, particle swarm optimization, multi-agent systems, behavior-based robotics

Unmanned Vehicle

Status:

Research and development, diffusion, commercial

Potential Applications:

Transport of goods (e.g. food), mass surveillance, eavesdropping, oceanography, commercial aerial livestock monitoring, wildfire mapping, pipeline security, home security, road patrol and anti-piracy, patrol the nation's borders, scout property, and hunt down fugitives, oil, gas and mineral exploration and production, geophysical surveys, geomagnetic surveys, scientific research in areas too dangerous for pilots like a hurricane tornado hunter, firefighting, military operations and peacekeeping operations, search and rescue, explosives and bomb disposal, gatekeeper and checkpoint operations, urban street presence, police raids in urban settings.

Related Technologies:

Unmanned aerial vehicle, AeroVironment, AeroVironment Global Observer, AeroVironment Nano Hummingbird, Unmanned combat air vehicle, Unmanned ground vehicle, Unmanned space vehicle, Unmanned surface vehicle, Unmanned underwater vehicle, Autonomous underwater vehicle

Appendix 17: Emerging Technologies in Transport

Airless Tire

Status:

Research

Development

Early Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Safer Tires

Related Technologies:

Tweel

Alternative Fuel Vehicle

Status:

Commercialization

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Reducing Air Pollution

Decreasing Oil Consumption

High Focus in Renewable Energy

Related Technologies:

Electric Vehicle

Hydrogen Vehicle

Compressed Air Vehicle

Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit

Status:

Commercialization

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Reducing Air Pollution

Decreasing Oil Consumption

Related Technologies:

Electric vehicle

Beam-Powered Propulsion

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Laser propulsion

Electro Hydrodynamic Propulsion

Status:

Research

Development

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Better Flying Transportation

Efficient Propulsion in Air

Related Technologies:

Electro-Hydrodynamics

Flexible Wings

Status:

Experiments

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Controlling Aircraft, and Ships

Related Technologies:

Aircraft Flight Control System

BAE Systems Demon

Fluidics and Fluidic Flight Controls

X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing

Adaptive Compliant Wing 

Flying Car

Status:

Early Commercialization

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

More Effective Transportation

Related Technologies:

Terrafugia Transition

Moller M400 Skycar

Urban Aeronautics X-Hawk

Aeromobil

Fusion rocket

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Fast Interplanetary Travel

Limited Interstellar Applications

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Hoverbike

Status:

Working Prototypes

Early Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Package Delivery

Search and Rescue

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Hovertrain, Ground Effect Train

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Trains with Higher Speed

Related Technologies:

Aérotrain 

Duke Hospital PRT

Hovercraft

High Altitude Platforms

Status:

Experimentation

Potential Applications:

Communications

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Jet Pack or Backpack Helicopter

Status:

Early commercialization

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

More Effective Transportation

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Maglev Train or Vactrain

Status:

Research

Early Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Trains with Higher Speed

Related Technologies:

Transrapid

Shanghai Maglev Train

Linimo

Magnetic Levitation

Status:

Research

Development

Commercialization (Maglev Train)

Potential Applications:

High Temperature Superconductivity

Cryogenics

Low Temperature Refrigerators,

Superconducting Magnet Design and Construction

Fiber Reinforced Plastics for Vehicles and Structural Concretes

Communication and High-Power Solid-State Controls

Vehicle Design (Aerodynamics and Noise Mitigation)

Precision Manufacturing,

Construction and Fabrication of Concrete Structures

Maglev Car

Maglev Based Spacecraft Launch

Related Technologies:

Vactrain

Levicar

Mass Driver

Status:

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Nuclear Photonic Rocket

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Interplanetary travel

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Personal Rapid Transit

Status:

Early Commercialization

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

More Effective Transportation

Related Technologies:

Morgantown PRT

ULTra

Photon Rocket

Status:

Hypothetical

Potential Applications:

Local Interstellar Travel

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Photonic Laser Thruster

Status:

Prototypes

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Physical Internet

Status:

Research

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Scooter-Sharing System

Status:

Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Increased density

Related Technologies:

Bird (company)

Vactrain

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Faster Way to Get Somewhere

Related Technologies:

ET3 Global Alliance

Hyperloop

Propellant Depot

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Enabling Deep-Space Missions with More Massive Payloads

Satellite Life Extension

Ultimately Lowering the Cost Per Kg Launched to Space

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Pulse Detonation Engine

Status:

Testbed Demos

Potential Applications:

Fast Interplanetary Travel

Possible Interstellar Travel Applications

Related Technologies:

Not Applicable

Reusable Launch system

Status:

Research

Early Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Surface-to-Orbit Transport

Related Technologies:

Falcon 9

Falcon Heavy

Starship

New Glenn

Self-Driving Car

Status:

Research

Development

Early Commercialization

Potential Applications:

Reducing concerns of tiredness while driving

Helpful in countries where employment of personal drivers is expensive.

Related Technologies:

Waymo

Space Elevator

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Not Applicable

Related Technologies:

Non-Rocket Space-Launch

Orbital Ring

Sky Hook

Space Fountain

Spaceplane

Status:

Research

Development

Potential Applications:

Hypersonic Transport

Related Technologies:

A2

Skylon

Supersonic transport

Status:

Commercialization

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Airliner with Higher Speed

Related Technologies:

Concorde

Tupolev Tu-144

Vehicular Communication Systems

Status:

Research

Development

Diffusion

Potential Applications:

Inform other vehicles the necessary warnings on entering intersections

Traffic Management

Accommodating ambulances, fire trucks, and police cars to a specific situation such as hot pursuits and bad weather

Driver Assistance Systems

Automated Highways

Related Technologies:

Artificial Passenger

Dedicated Short-Range Communications

Intelligent Transportation System