rexresearch
Plasma-Activated Water ( PAW )
Related: ElectroCulture ... Soniculture
https://www.patsnap.com/resources/blog/articles/plasma-activated-water-technology-landscape-2026/
Plasma activated water technology landscape 2026
[ PPTX ]
Plasma activated water (PAW) — produced by exposing water to non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma — generates a cocktail of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species that deliver potent antimicrobial and biostimulatory effects without chemical residues. This 2026 landscape maps the generation technologies, application domains, patent positions, and emerging strategic opportunities across food safety, agriculture, medicine, and water purification.
What plasma activated water is and how it works ... Four dominant PAW generation technologies compared ... Application domains: food, agriculture, medicine, and water ... Innovation timeline: from lab concept to commercial signals ... Five emerging directions shaping PAW’s next phase ... Strategic implications for IP teams and R&D leaders
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1385894725133846
Electro-agriculture: Revolutionizing farming for a sustainable future
Bradie S. Crandall, et al.
"...Electro-ag bypasses traditional photosynthesis, enabling food cultivation in non-arable urban centers, arid deserts, and even outer space environments. We offer a new strategy that improves energy efficiency by an order of magnitude compared with photosynthesis, along with essential guidance for developing electro-ag focused on staple crops, to maximize benefits for regions facing food insecurity. This innovative approach to agriculture holds significant promise in reducing environmental impacts, streamlining supply chains, and addressing the global food crisis."
https://www.vitalfluid.com
https://www.vitalfluid.com/news/what-is-plasma-activated-water
High Tech Campus 25-5
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040 309 5000
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33261517/
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition Volume 62, 2022 - Issue 8
A review on recent advances in plasma-activated water for food safety: current applications and future trends
Qisen Xiang et al
Abstract -- Plasma-activated water (PAW), the water or solutions treated with atmospheric cold plasma, is an eco-friendly technique with minimal changes in food products, making it a befitting alternative to traditional disinfection methods. Due to its potential microbicidal properties, PAW has been receiving increasing attention for applications in the food, agricultural, and biomedical fields. In this article, we aimed at presenting an overview of recent studies on the generation methods, physicochemical properties, and antimicrobial activity of PAW, as well as its application in the food industry. Specific areas were well discussed including microbial decontamination of food products, reduction of pesticide residues, meat curing, sprouts production, and disinfection of food contact materials. In addition, the factors influencing PAW efficiency were also well illustrated in detail, such as discharge parameters, types and amounts of microorganisms, characteristics of the liquid solution and food products, and treatment time. Moreover, the strategies to improve the efficacy of PAW were also presented in combination with other technologies. Furthermore, the salient drawbacks of this technology were discussed and the important areas for future research were also highlighted. Overall, the present review provides important insights for the application of PAW in the food industry.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=brfSLxoHUps
This Brawndo Plasma Thermos Makes What Plants Crave
Plasma Channel
In my ever increasing attempt to use high voltage physics for the good of agriculture, I've built a one of a kind Plasma thermos. Fill it with water, press a button, and out comes Plasma Activated Water (PAW), or in other words, instant plant fertilizer at the touch of a button! My tests on radishes showed legit promise for this device.
https://growingfruit.org/t/plasma-activated-water-paw-or-plasma-culture/71146
Plasma Activated Water PAW or Plasma culture
https://www.mdpi.com/2571-6182/6/1/5
Plasma 2023, 6(1), 45-57
Physical Properties of Plasma-Activated Water
by Mobish Shaji
[ PDF ]
Abstract -- Recent observations of plasma-activated water (PAW) s surfactant behavior suggest that the activation of water with non-equilibrium plasma can decrease the surface tension of the water. This suggested change to the surface tension also indicates that the addition of plasma can lead to changes in the physical properties of the water, knowledge of which can expand existing PAW applications and open new ones. While the chemical behavior of PAW has been extensively analyzed, to the best of our knowledge the physical properties of PAW have not been investigated. This study focuses on the need for experimental determination of PAW s physical properties namely, surface tension, viscosity, and contact angle. The experimental results of this study show that the addition of plasma lowers the surface tension of water at room temperature, increases the viscosity of water at high temperatures, and lowers the contact angle of droplets on glass surfaces at room temperatures. Potential factors influencing these changes include plasma alteration of the mesoscopic structure of water at low temperatures and plasma additives acting as foreign particles in water at higher temperatures. Ultimately, this investigation demonstrates that the physical properties of water change due to plasma activation, which could lead to potential industrial applications of PAW as a surfactant or as a washing-out and cleaning agent.
https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/11/7/2213
Processes 2023, 11(7), 2213;
Plasma-Activated Water: Physicochemical Properties, Generation Techniques, and Applications
by Kiing S. Wong et al
[ PDF ]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34152983/
Appl. Phys. Lett. 102, 203701 (2013)
Hybrid treatment via MHz acoustic waves and plasma to enhance seed germination in mung bean.
Wong, K.S.; Hung, Y.M.; Tan, M.K.
Abstract -- We investigate a hybrid treatment-consisting of an atmospheric pressure plasma pretreatment, followed by an MHz surface acoustic waves (SAWs) treatment with either de-ionized (DI) water or plasma activated water (PAW)-on mung beans to accelerate the germination process, as mung bean sprout is one of the important food staples. For the early growth rate (after 320 min), we observe that the hybrid treatment with PAW can lead to approximately 217% higher moisture content for the treated beans when compared with that without hybrid treatment. Additionally, the hybrid-treated beans germinate in around 120 min, while the untreated beans germinate only in around 420 min, that is, 3.5-fold faster for treated beans. This can be attributed to the dominant effect of SAW that accelerates stage 1 water absorption process and the effect of direct plasma and PAW that promote stage 2 metabolism process, leading to the enhancement in stage 3 germination process in early growth rate. For the post growth rate (after 24 h), we observe that the hybrid treatment with DI water can lead to an approximately 44.20% in higher moisture and 71.17% in radicle length when compared with untreated beans. Interestingly, the hybrid treatment with PAW, on the other hand, is observed to have an adverse effect on germination after 24 h, that is, approximately 14.51% lower in moisture content and 43.49% lower in radicle length for the hybrid-treated beans with PAW when compared with that with DI water.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33997980/
J Sci Food Agric. 2021 Dec;101(15):6463-6471.
Producing high quality mung bean sprout using atmospheric cold plasma treatment: better physical appearance and higher ?-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content.
Chou YJ, Cheng KC, Hsu FC, Wu JS, Ting Y.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27584560/
Food Microbiol. 2021 Jun;96:103708.
Application of plasma activated water for decontamination of alfalfa and mung bean seeds.
Machado-Moreira B, Tiwari BK, Richards KG, Abram F, Burgess CM.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27584560/
Sci Rep. 2016 Sep 1;6:32603.
Effects of Atmospheric-Pressure N2, He, Air, and O2 Microplasmas on Mung Bean Seed Germination and Seedling Growth.
Zhou R, Zhou R, Zhang X, Zhuang J, Yang S, Bazaka K, Ken Ostrikov K.
[ PDF ]]
Abstract -- Atmospheric-pressure N2, He, air, and O2 microplasma arrays have been used to investigate the effects of plasma treatment on seed germination and seedling growth of mung bean in aqueous solution. Seed germination and growth of mung bean were found to strongly depend on the feed gases used to generate plasma and plasma treatment time. Compared to the treatment with atmospheric-pressure O2, N2 and He microplasma arrays, treatment with air microplasma arrays was shown to be more efficient in improving both the seed germination rate and seedling growth, the effect attributed to solution acidification and interactions with plasma-generated reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Acidic environment caused by air discharge in water may promote leathering of seed chaps, thus enhancing the germination rate of mung bean, and stimulating the growth of hypocotyl and radicle. The interactions between plasma-generated reactive species, such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and nitrogen compounds, and seeds led to a significant acceleration of seed germination and an increase in seedling length of mung bean. Electrolyte leakage rate of mung bean seeds soaked in solution activated using air microplasma was the lowest, while the catalase activity of thus-treated mung bean seeds was the highest compared to other types of microplasma.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29024061/
In vitro studies of the antimicrobial effect of non-thermal plasma-activated water as a novel mouthwash
Y Li, J Pan, G Ye, Q Zhang, J Wang, J Zhang, J Fang
Abstract -- The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial effects of non?thermal plasma?activated water (PAW) as a novel mouthwash in vitro. Three representative oral pathogens Streptococcus mutans, Actinomyces viscosus and Porphyromonas gingivalis were treated with PAW. The inactivation effect was evaluated using the colony?forming unit (CFU) method, and the morphological and structural changes of a cell were observed by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The physicochemical properties of PAW were analysed, and its influence on the leakage of intracellular proteins and DNA was evaluated. The results showed significant reduction of Streptococcus mutans within 60 s, of Actinomyces viscosus within 40 s, and of Porphyromonas gingivalis in less than 40 s. Scanning electron microscopy and TEM images showed that the normal cell morphology changed by varying degrees after treatment with PAW. Intracellular proteins (280 nm) and DNA (260 nm) leaked from all three species of bacteria after treatment with PAW. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), especially atomic oxygen (O), hydroxyl radical (?OH), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), were generated and led to strong oxidative stress and cell damage. These results suggest that PAW has potential use as a novel antimicrobial mouthwash.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214662821000037
Curr. Plant Biol. 2021, 26, 100197.
Implications of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in seed physiology for sustainable crop productivity under changing climate conditions.
Kumar, S.J.; Chintagunta, A.D.; Reddy, Y.M.; Rajjou, L.; Garlapati, V.K.; Agarwal, D.K.; Prasad, S.R.; Simal-Gandara, J.
[ PDF ]
Abstract -- Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) incessantly produced as by-products of metabolism play significant roles in seed physiology. ROS (hydroxyl, superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide) and RNS (nitric oxide, nitric dioxide, nitrous acid and dinitrogen tetroxide) content changes in all phases of seed life cycle that influence seed germination, dormancy and longevity. Recent studies illustrate that ROS and RNS are performing oxidative and nitrosative signaling to induce seed germination within oxidative window level. Besides, ROS/RNS-mediated post-translational modifications (PTM) like carbonylation, S-nitrosylation and nitration are gaining interest in promoting seed germination. Understanding the signalling pathways, cross-talk with plant hormones and their role in promoting seed germination and dormancy alleviation could pave way for hormone engineering that help in crop productivity, particularly under climatic changing conditions. In addition, role of antioxidants and glutathione thiols in protecting from oxidative damage indicate that these compounds can be used for seed viability/quality markers that aid in monitoring of crop establishment. In this review, sources of ROS and RNS, their cross-talk with plant hormones (prospects for hormone engineering), signalling functions pertaining to seed germination, dormancy and deterioration have been illustrated. In addition, seed quality markers under climatic changing conditions for effective monitoring of crop stand establishment and diagnostics development have been elucidated.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342128485_Effects_of_plasma-activated_water_treatment_on_seed_germination_and_growth_of_mung_bean_sprouts
J. Taibah Univ. Sci. 2020, 14, 823 830.
Effects of plasma-activated water treatment on seed germination and growth of mung bean sprouts.
Fan, L.; Liu, X.; Ma, Y.; Xiang, Q.
[ PDF ]
Abstract -- The present work aimed to investigate the effect of plasma-activated water (PAW) on seed germination and seedling growth of mung bean sprouts. Distilled water was exposed to non-thermal plasma for 15, 30, 60, and 90?s to prepare PAW, which was defined as PAW15, PAW30, PAW60, and PAW90, respectively. The germination rate, growth characteristics, total phenolic and flavonoid contents were all maximized when mung bean seeds were treated by PAW15, then followed by a decline over the prolonged plasma activation time (30 90?s). PAW15 caused no remarkably changes in the antioxidant capacity of sprouts as compared to DW (p?>?0.05). However, the antioxidant activity of sprouts prepared with PAW30, PAW60, and PAW90 were decreased significantly (p?<?0.05) compared with that of sprouts soaked in distilled water. In summary, PAW may be used to improve the production of sprouts, but the process parameters should be optimized for each application.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8473050/
Plasma Process. Polym. 2021, 18, 2000205.
The effect of water activated by nonthermal air plasma on the growth of farm plants: Case of maize and barley.
Ndiffo Yemeli, G.B.; vubov , R.; Kostolani, D.; Kyzek, S.; Machala, Z.
[ PDF ]
Abstract -- The effects of plasma?activated water (PAW) generated by nonthermal air plasmas of transient spark with water electrospray or atmospheric glow discharge were investigated on maize (Zea mays L. var Saccharata) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seedlings. PAW is characterized by measuring concentrations of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (H2O2, , ). After 4 weeks of plants growth, the effects of PAW are analyzed by measuring plant growth and physiological parameters: plant length and fresh weight, photosynthetic pigments concentration and photosynthesis rate, total soluble proteins, antioxidant enzyme activity, and DNA damage. The results suggest that PAW, depending on chemical composition, has the potential to improve the plant growth and influence the physiological parameters, while causing no harmful DNA damage.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335822825_Plasma_activated_water_the_next_generation_eco-friendly_stimulant_for_enhancing_plant_seed_germination_vigor_and_increased_enzyme_activity_a_study_on_black_gram_Vigna_mungo_L
Gesunde Pflanz. 2019, 71, 175 185.
Effects of LPDBD plasma and plasma activated water on germination and growth in rapeseed (Brassica napus).
Islam, S.; Farjana, B.O.; Sajib, S.A.; Nepal, C.R.; Reza, A.; Hasan, M.; Talukder, M.R.; Kabir, A.H.
[ PDF ]
Abstract -- The study deals with the effect of low pressure dielectric barrier discharge (LPDBD) plasma and plasma activated water (PAW) produced with Ar, O2 and Air on germination and growth in rapeseed. Although H2O2 concentration showed no significant changes, ??amylase activity (germination inducer) significantly increased in seeds due to LPDBD plasma. In addition, the activity of SOD and CAT was significantly induced in seeds of rapeseed treated with PAW. Rapeseed plants grown from the LPDBD plasma treated seeds showed significant improvements in shoot characteristics, chlorophyll synthesis, total soluble protein and sugar concentration compared to controls. Interestingly, plasma treated plants also showed no significant variations of H2O2 in tissue(s) which is supported by the biochemical and molecular evidence(s) of antioxidant enzymes. Plants exhibited a significant increase in tissue APX and CAT activities along with BnAPX and BnCAT expression(s) in roots when seeds were treated with LPDBD Air/O2 and PAW O2. This suggests that LPDBD plasma might have been involved with elevated level of reactive oxygen species, which was tightly controlled through the upregulation of APX and CAT activities and thus trigger the growth and development in rapeseed plants. These findings reveal the role and mechanisms of LPDBD technique facilitating germination and growth in rapeseed plants.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590123025021176
Synergistic effects of non-thermal plasma and plasma-activated ...
Abstract -- In agriculture, non-thermal plasma has demonstrated considerable potential in enhancing seed germination, promoting plant development, decontaminating seeds, ...
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335822825_Plasma_activated_water_the_next_generation_eco-friendly_stimulant_for_enhancing_plant_seed_germination_vigor_and_increased_enzyme_activity_a_study_on_black_gram_Vigna_mungo_L
Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing 40(4)
Plasma activated water: the next generation eco-friendly stimulant for enhancing plant seed germination, vigor and increased enzyme activity, a study on black gram (Vigna mungo L.)
Abstract -- Chemical fertilization in agriculture is threatening to the ecosystem. Therefore, the use of eco-friendly stimulant for crop revolution is highly desirable. This study investigates the effects of plasma activated water (PAW) created by treating de-ionized water with high voltage discharge on black gram. Results showed significant improvements in different agronomic traits. Significant changes in H2O2, a reactive-oxygen-species (ROS) were observed in seeds, leaves, and roots. Increase in catalase (ROS scavenger) was also observed in roots of plants grown from 3 and 6 min PAW treated seeds which was consistent with the upregulation of VmCAT gene. This reveals that PAW is associated with elevated H2O2 in black gram in a tightly regulated manner by the upregulation of CAT activity resulted in increased germination, growth, and development. Non-covalent binding pattern of H2O2 with CAT through docking strongly supports this phenomenon. It does suggest that the increase of H2O2 tightly regulated by the upregulation of CAT provides optimum conditions for improved seed germination and growth in black gram. These findings reveal the benefits of PAW for enhanced crop production.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12751452/
Seed priming and irrigating with plasma-activated water improve the growth and drought resistance in Poa pratensis
Masoomeh Zaboli, Fatemeh Nejad-Alimoradi , Fatemeh Rostami, Batool keramat, Effat Ahmadi Mousavi, Fatemeh Nasibi
Abstract -- Poa pratensis L. is a perennial grass commonly used for ecological restoration due to its rapid growth rate and strong adaptability. It is considered an excellent choice for soccer fields and urban green spaces because of its high wear resistance and durability. this is the first report demonstrating the co-application of seed priming and plasma-activated water irrigation for enhancing drought resistance in P. pratensis. This study aimed to examine the influence of seed priming and irrigation with PAW on the growth of P. pratensis and its ability to endure drought conditions. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse in 2023, using a completely randomized design. Seeds were primed with either normal water (control group) or PAW and then sown in pots containing standard soil. The experiment included six treatments: three PAW management strategies—watered normally (WW, control group), seeds primed with PAW and irrigated with normal water (PW), and a combination of both methods (PP: primed and irrigated with PAW)—under both drought and non-drought stress conditions.
Results -- The findings indicated that drought stress significantly decreased various growth parameters, including fresh weight (21% reduction), dry weight (27% reduction), chlorophyll levels (12% reduction), and the activities of the enzymes ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT) (22% and 5% reductions, respectively) in P. pratensis. Conversely, drought stress increased the levels of several compounds: carotenoids (24% increase), malondialdehyde (MDA) (81% increase), proline (80% increase), soluble carbohydrates (15% increase), and the enzyme activity of guaiacol peroxidase (GPX) (36% increase). Under drought conditions, seed priming with PAW led to a decrease in MDA (21%) and an increase in fresh weight (approximately 13%) and dry weight (about 25%). Total chlorophyll increased by around 30%, while proline and soluble sugar content rose by 14% and 50%, respectively. The activities of APX, CAT, and GPX enzymes increased by 18%, 4%, and 11%, respectively. In summary, the combination of seed priming and irrigation with PAW under drought conditions reduced MDA content by 28% and enhanced plant biomass (fresh weight by 13% and dry weight by 21%), photosynthetic pigments (total chlorophyll by 17%), and osmoprotectants (proline by 56% and soluble carbohydrates by 11%). The activities of APX, CAT, and GPX also increased significantly—by 16%, 2%, and 16%, respectively.
Conclusions -- PAW has been shown to improve drought stress in P. pratensis by reducing lipid peroxidation and increasing levels of photosynthetic pigments, osmoprotectants, and antioxidant enzyme activity. The results indicate that the most beneficial outcomes occur when seed priming is combined with PAW irrigation. This technology could serve as a cost-effective and sustainable method for enhancing growth and drought tolerance in plants, including P. pratensis, under water-stressed conditions. Further studies are necessary to explore this effect on additional plants and to better understand its details and possible mechanisms in future research.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969718319946
Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 640 641, 493 500
Non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma jet for the bacterial inactivation in an aqueous medium.
Chandana, L.; Sangeetha, C.; Shashidhar, T.; Subrahmanyam, C.
Abstract -- This study reports the potential of non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma jet for the bacterial inactivation in an aqueous medium. All experiments were conducted in a reactor containing aqueous solution i.e., water, pre-inoculated with bacterial suspensions and after plasma exposure solution is inoculated in Petrifilm to know the viable count. The plasma jet exposure to the bacterial aqueous solution was carried out under various gases such as helium, argon, air and also in combination as Argon?+?Air and Helium?+?Air. In each case, the oxidizing species such as hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, hydroxyl radicals and ozone formed in the reactor during the plasma exposure were quantified. The effect of applied voltage and gas flow rate were studied to optimize the conditions for its efficacy. The solution pH plays a prominent role in bacterial inactivation, as the process is effective at low pH exhibiting 7 log reduction of bacterial population. The bacterial inactivation is efficient at below the critical pH (<4.7) and the inactivation process becomes less effective if the pH goes above 4.7. Plasma treatment of deionized water produces some reactive species such as hydrogen peroxide and nitrates, this plasma treated water is used to test the bacterial inactivation. Addition of Fe2+ salt to the plasma treated water improves the efficacy by converting hydrogen peroxide to hydroxyl radicals, which serves to be a major contributor to the bacterial inactivation. Especially, Non-thermal plasma offers an alternative way to sterilize vacuum sensitive and thermo-labile living tissues.
Non-thermal plasma-activated water inactivation of food-borne pathogen on fresh produce.
J. Hazard. Mater. 2015, 300, 643 651.
Ma, R.; Wang, G.; Tian, Y.; Wang, K.; Zhang, J.; Fang, J.
Abstract -- Non-thermal plasma has been widely considered to be an effective method for decontamination of foods. Recently, numerous studies report that plasma-activated water (PAW) also has outstanding antibacterial ability. This study presents the first report on the potential of PAW for the inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) inoculated on strawberries. PAW treatments achieved a reduction of S. aureus ranging from 1.6 to 2.3 log at day-0 storage, while 1.7 to 3.4 log at day-4 storage. The inactivation efficiency depended on the plasma-activated time for PAW generation and PAW-treated time of strawberries inoculated with S. aureus. LIVE/DEAD staining and scanning electron microscopy results confirm that PAW could damage the bacterial cell wall. Moreover, optical emission spectra and oxidation reduction potential results demonstrate the inactivation is mainly attributed to oxidative stress induced by reactive oxygen species in PAW. In addition, no significant change was found in color, firmness and pH of the PAW treated strawberries. Thus, PAW can be a promising alternative to traditional sanitizers applied in the fresh produce industry.
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6463/ab81cf
https://researchportalplus.anu.edu.au/en/publications/plasma-activated-water-generation-origin-of-reactive-species-and-/
J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2020, 53, 303001.
Plasma-activated water: Generation, origin of reactive species and biological applications.
Zhou, R.; Zhou, R.; Wang, P.; Xian, Y.; Mai-Prochnow, A.; Lu, X.; Cullen, P.; Ostrikov, K.K.; Bazaka, K.
Abstract -- Novel plasma-based technologies that offer maximum efficiency at minimal environmental costs are expected to further promote the sustainable societal and economic development. Unique transfer of chemical reactivity and energy from gaseous plasmas to water takes place in the absence of any other chemicals, but results in a product with a notable transient broad-spectrum biological activity, referred to as plasma-activated water (PAW). These features make PAW a green prospective solution for a wide range of biotechnology applications, from water purification to biomedicine. Here, we present a succinct review of how novel, efficient methods based on non-equilibrium reactive plasma chemistries can be applied to low-cost natural water sources to produce a prospective product with a wide range of applications while at the same time minimising the process steps and dramatically reducing the use of expensive and/or hazardous reagents. Despite the recent exciting developments in this field, there presently is no topical review which specifically focuses on the underlying physics and chemistry related to plasma-activated water. We focus specifically on the PAW generation, origin of reactive species present in PAW, its related analytical chemistry and potentially different mechanisms that regulate the bio-activities of PAW in different biotech-applications and their roles in determining PAW efficacy and selectivity. We then review recent advances in our understanding of plasma-water interactions, briefly outlining current and proposed applications of PAW in agriculture, food and biomedicine. Finally, we outline future research directions and challenges that may hinder translation of these technologies into real-life applications. Overall, this review will provide much needed insights into the fundamental aspects of PAW chemistry required for optimization of the biochemical activity of PAW and translation of this environment- and human-health-friendly, and energy-efficient strategy into real life applications.
https://pubs.rsc.org/gc/article-abstract/27/14/3715/893499/Energy-efficient-production-of-plasma-activated?redirectedFrom=fulltext
Green Chem. (2025) 27 (14): 3715–3726.
Energy-efficient production of plasma-activated water: insights into controllable peroxynitrite chemistry† Available to Purchase
Dingwei Gan
Abstract -- Pathogenic bacteria pose a continuous threat to human health. Plasma-activated water (PAW), produced by the interaction between cold atmospheric plasma and water, shows great potential as a broad-spectrum disinfectant towards pathogenic bacteria, among others. Previous studies have indicated that low levels of peroxynitrite (ONOO−) present in PAW play an important role in effectively inactivating pathogenic microorganisms; however, producing ONOO− in a controlled and energy-efficient manner remains a challenge. In this study, we propose a new, green PAW production strategy based on the H2O2 + NO2− → ONOO− + H2O pathway using a dual underwater double bubble reactor (DR) with Ar and/or N2 as the feed gases. The results show that Ar plasma–water interactions can effectively generate H2O2, while N2 plasma favors the generation of aqueous NO2−. By adjusting the Ar/N2 ratio, the system achieves an ONOO− production rate of 51.3 μmol h−1 and an energy efficiency of 2850 μmol (kW h)−1. Additionally, the DR-produced PAW demonstrates effective inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus, reducing the bacterial population by more than five orders of magnitude within 10 min. Scavenger experiments confirm that ONOO− can be classified as the primary bactericidal agent, underscoring the importance of energy-efficient synthesis of ONOO− for sustainable disinfection methods. Overall, this work not only emphasizes the importance of ONOO− in PAW-based sterilization and shows effective strategies for controllable and highly energy-ONOO− efficient peroxynitrite synthesis, but also provides new insights into PAW-related chemistry and the development of environmentally friendly disinfection reagents.
https://mojawoda.com/en/blog/health-and-drinking-water/plasma-water-reviews-how-to-make-what-it-helps?srsltid=AfmBOopmqge4ujg1XZvClC6YrMEZ7R21FzaIDCpN9_MDLo_tPCDKC26z
Plasma water - reviews, how to make it, what it helps with
Maciej Waliduda
What is plasma water and how is it created... What are its physicochemical properties (ORP, pH, ROS)... What are the ways to make plasma water at home... What are the opinions and results of clinical studies... What does plasma water help withplasma water and what are its applications... What are the potential side effects and contraindications.
https://www.youtube.com/shorts/GSmJ8QYAy3Q
This Water Was Made With Lightning - YouTube
In this experiment, I build a plasma reactor that infuses water ... The result is plasma-activated water - PAW!
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20230008819
Plasma Activated Water: A Technology for Acid Generation and Space Crop Production
[ Powerpoint ]
As humanity returns to the moon and onward to Mars, sustainable space travel becomes essential for cost and independence from Earth. Astronaut activities in low Earth orbit resupply consumable materials and can require alternative technologies if transportation of chemicals is deemed hazardous. Plasma technology and applications are able to generate commodities that assist in achieving Earth independence. Plasma interaction with water generates acid in-situ using on-board resources of electricity and breathable air without the need for large infrastructure. At Kennedy Space Center, researchers have shown that plasma is able to produce nitric acid, and therefore nitrates, in a plant-usable form in water. In this report, the team presents results on acid generation in g/kW-hr as well as provides results on plasma activated water for plant growth assistance. Plasma was generated utilizing DC, AC, and pulsed power supplies in order to determine optimizing parameters for generation of this useful commodity.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2026.1754073/full
Front. Plant Sci., 14 April 2026
Global meta-analysis of plasma-activated water for improving crop establishment, productivity, and health
Nawab Ali et al
Abstract -- Plasma-activated water (PAW) has emerged as a promising eco-friendly technology and a sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers in agriculture due to its role in plant growth, nutrition, and disease suppression. To comprehensively evaluate its effectiveness, a meta-analysis was conducted using published studies comprising diverse crops, experimental conditions, and PAW generation chemistry. Log response ratios (LnRR) and pooled estimates with 95% confidence intervals were calculated, and forest plots were generated for each response variable. Results revealed that PAW application significantly improved plant growth and pigment content (chlorophyll a, b, and c and carotenoids), along with total soluble solids (TSS), total soluble protein (TSP), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), superoxidase dismutase (SOD), and total phenolic content (TPC) supporting improved metabolic activity. Moreover, a significant reduction in disease incidence and severity under PAW application ensured enhanced plant defense responses. Plasma activation altered water chemistry by lowering pH and increasing electrical conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, H2O2, and oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), reflecting the stable presence of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS). This comprehensive meta-analysis indicates that PAW consistently improves plant growth, biochemical characteristics, yield, and disease resistance. The acidifying nature of PAW also influences soil microbial dynamics, potentially enhancing nutrient cycling and long-term soil fertility. Collectively, the findings support PAW application as a multifunctional strategy for advancing sustainable agriculture through improved plant performance. The integration of solar-powered irrigation systems with onsite PAW activation and water quality sensors demonstrates a scalable pathway for precise, resilient irrigation and nutrient delivery in agriculture.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppap.202400249
“Production and Chemical Composition of Plasma Activated Water: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”
Roberto Montalbetti, Zdenko Machala, Matteo Gherardi, Romolo Laurita
[ PDF ]
Abstract -- The physio-chemical interplay between cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) and water confers unique chemical and biological properties to the liquid, producing plasma-activated water (PAW). This review systematically examines various methodologies for PAW production, focusing on the effects of process parameters on reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) concentration and pH levels in PAW. It presents detailed analyses of CAP sources, working gases, and treatment conditions, showcasing their impact on PAW processes. The extracted data are reprocessed to derive parameters such as mean energy density and RONS production efficiency. Specific plasma-water configurations exhibit notably higher production rates, indicating promising opportunities for advancing PAW generation techniques and enhancing its applicability in various fields.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wFqrwPtxGu8
Plasma Activated Water (PAW) with the Henniker Atmospheric Plasma
Henniker Plasma Treatment
Plasma activated water is an emerging technology in food, agricultural & biomedical industries. In this short video we use Henniker's Cirrus plasma to make PAW. Witness its effectiveness through a captivating timelapse of cut roses
https://eu-cap-network.ec.europa.eu/good-practice/plasma-activated-water-sustainable-agriculture_en
Plasma Activated Water for Sustainable Agriculture
An EIP Operational Group worked on upscaling the production of Plasma Activated Water (PAW) and on demonstrating its effectiveness and cost efficiency ...
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9029124/
Applications of Plasma-Activated Water in Dentistry: A Review
Noala Vicensoto Moreira Milhan et al
[ PDF ]
Abstract -- The activation of water by non-thermal plasma creates a liquid with active constituents referred to as plasma-activated water (PAW). Due to its active constituents, PAW may play an important role in different fields, such as agriculture, the food industry and healthcare. Plasma liquid technology has received attention in recent years due to its versatility and good potential, mainly focused on different health care purposes. This interest has extended to dentistry, since the use of a plasma–liquid technology could bring clinical advantages, compared to direct application of non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasmas (NTAPPs). The aim of this paper is to discuss the applicability of PAW in different areas of dentistry, according to the published literature about NTAPPs and plasma–liquid technology. The direct and indirect application of NTAPPs are presented in the introduction. Posteriorly, the main reactors for generating PAW and its active constituents with a role in biomedical applications are specified, followed by a section that discusses, in detail, the use of PAW as a tool for different oral diseases.
https://plasma-blue.com/plasma-activated-water/
Plasma Blue
Plasma Activated Water
Plasma Blue is a company based in Minnesota specializing in advanced water treatment solutions using plasma technology. We focus on harnessing the power of plasma to create reactive species that can effectively disinfect water, remove contaminants and improve water quality. We leveraged insights from previous results to develop an improved design that generates plasma directly in water...
Patentshttps://worldwide.espacenet.com/advancedSearch?locale=en_EP
European Patent Office Advanced Search
Approximately 1500 results found in the Worldwide database for "plasma activated water" in the title or abstract...
Examples:
Application of activated water in promoting crop growth
CN122010600 [ PDF ]
The invention provides an application of activated water in promotion of crop growth, working gas is introduced into a plasma generator for reaction to obtain plasma gas, the plasma gas is introduced into a water body for treatment to obtain plasma activated water, and then the plasma activated water is subjected to light-shielding standing for 10-50 h to obtain the activated water, or the plasma gas and ozone are mixed for reaction and then are introduced into the water body for treatment, and the activated water is obtained. The activated water can effectively reduce the content of peroxynitrous acid, and can promote the growth of crops.
[n0002] Low-temperature plasma activated water (PAW) has been widely studied and reported as a novel disinfectant. For example, Chinese invention patent document CN119430372A discloses a system and method for enhancing the sterilization and disinfection effect of plasma-activated water. In the system, an underwater dual-bubble plasma generator is electrically connected to a low-temperature plasma power supply. A pair of bubble reactors are arranged at intervals and are at least partially immersed in a container. A metal rod extends inside a quartz tube through a positioning ring connected to the opening of a quartz tube. The metal rod is connected to the low-temperature plasma power supply. Gas is introduced into the quartz tube through the positioning ring. A nitrogen source is connected to one bubble reactor to introduce nitrogen gas through the gas channel, and an argon source is connected to the other bubble reactor to introduce argon gas through the gas channel. When a voltage is applied to the two metal rods of the pair of bubble reactors, the two bubble reactors discharge simultaneously to generate plasma to generate NO<2>-
and H<2>O<2> active particles, respectively. NO<2>-
and H<2>O<2> active particles react to generate peroxynitrite (ONOO
The enhanced sterilization and disinfection function of plasma-activated water is achieved based on the chemical pathway of the above system.
However, there are few reports on the use of low-temperature plasma-activated water for crop growth because PAW contains peroxynitrite, and the strong oxidizing properties of peroxynitrite cause oxidative damage to crops, which is detrimental to their growth.
[0006] Summary of the Invention
[n0006] This invention provides an application of activated water in promoting crop growth. A working gas is introduced into a plasma generator to react and obtain plasma gas. The plasma gas is then introduced into a water body for treatment to obtain plasma-activated water. The plasma-activated water is then left to stand in the dark for 10-50 hours to obtain the activated water. Alternatively, the plasma gas is mixed with ozone and reacted before being introduced into a water body for treatment to obtain the activated water.
[n0007] Beneficial effects: This invention allows plasma-activated water to undergo natural decomposition of peroxynitrite by being left to stand in the dark, thereby reducing the peroxynitrite content. At the same time, the activated water contains nitrate and nitric oxide, which do not change when left to stand in the dark. Therefore, the activated water can be used as a nitrogen fertilizer to promote crop growth.
[n0008] This invention activates water by mixing and reacting plasma gas with ozone, which can effectively inhibit the production of peroxynitrite in the activated water and promote the formation of nitrate ions, thereby reducing the peroxynitrite content and further promoting crop growth.
[n0009] Preferably, the working gas is one or more of the following: air, a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, a mixture of air and nitrogen, a mixture of air and oxygen, or a mixture of air, nitrogen and oxygen.
[n0010] Preferably, the plasma generator includes one of a dielectric barrier discharge device, a plasma jet device, or a microwave plasma device.
[n0011] Preferably, the flow rate of the working gas is 15L/min to 30L/min.
[n0012] Preferably, ozone is generated by an ozone generator.
[n0013] Preferably, the ozone concentration is 500ppm to 5000ppm.
[n0014] Preferably, the ozone flow rate is 5 L/min to 15 L/min.
[n0015] Preferably, the processing time is 1 min to 30 min.
[n0016] Preferably, the water body is one or more of deionized water, tap water, or natural water sources.
[n0017] Preferably, the volume of the water is 50 mL to 1000 mL.
[n0022] Example 1
[0039] Air is introduced into a plasma jet device (manufactured by Zhengzhou Chuangtu Power Supply Co., Ltd.) to react and obtain plasma gas, wherein the discharge power of the plasma jet device is 140W; then the plasma gas is mixed with ozone and reacted, and then introduced into water for activation treatment to obtain activated water, denoted as PAW1; the water is 150mL of deionized water.
[n0023] The specific operation is as follows: As shown in Figure 1, both the plasma jet device and the ozone reactor are connected to the gas reaction chamber, which is connected to the water body. An air compressor introduces air into the plasma jet device at a rate of 15 L/min to produce plasma gas. An oxygen cylinder introduces oxygen into the ozone reactor to produce ozone. The ozone concentration is 2500 ppm, and the ozone flow rate is 5 L/min. After the plasma gas and ozone are mixed and reacted in the gas reaction chamber, they are introduced into the water body (150 mL of deionized water) for activation treatment to obtain activated water.
[n0024] Different activated water (PAW1) is obtained depending on the activation treatment time. For example, activation treatment of 1 min is recorded as PAW1-1 min, activation treatment of 2 min is recorded as PAW1-2 min, and activation treatment of 3 min is recorded as PAW1-3 min.
[n0025] Example 2
[0043] This embodiment provides an application of activated water in promoting crop growth, the method of which is as follows:
[0044] Air is introduced into a plasma jet device (manufactured by Zhengzhou Chuangtu Power Supply Co., Ltd.) to react and obtain plasma gas, wherein the discharge power of the plasma jet device is 140W; the plasma gas is introduced into water for activation treatment to obtain plasma activated water, and then the plasma activated water is left to stand in the dark for 24 hours to obtain the activated water, denoted as PAW2; the water is 150mL of deionized water.
[0045] The specific operation is as follows: As shown in Figure 2, the plasma jet device is connected to a water body (deionized water). The water body is connected to a light-proof settling box via a pipeline. The settling box contains a container (not shown in the figure) holding the water body. An air compressor introduces air into the plasma jet device at a rate of 15 L/min to react and obtain plasma gas. The plasma gas is then introduced into the water body (150 mL of deionized water) for activation treatment to obtain plasma-activated water. The plasma-activated water is settling in the settling box in the dark for 24 hours to obtain the activated water (PAW2).
[n0026] Different activated water (PAW2) is obtained depending on the activation treatment time. For example, activation treatment of 1 min is recorded as PAW2-1 min, activation treatment of 2 min is recorded as PAW2-2 min, and activation treatment of 3 min is recorded as PAW2-3 min.
Method and device for generating plasma activated fog based on condensed water electrode
CN121842921 [ PDF ]
The invention discloses a plasma activated fog generation method and device based on condensed water electrodes. The device comprises a water supply part, an electrode assembly and a high-voltage power supply, wherein the electrode assembly is formed by symmetrically arranging a discharge electrode and an induction electrode, the discharge electrode comprises a cylindrical base body and discharge units symmetrically distributed along the outer surface of the cylindrical base body, and the induction electrode is a hollow cylinder coaxially arranged with the cylindrical base body of the discharge electrode; the hollow cylinder surrounds the discharge electrode, an annular discharge gap is formed between the hollow cylinder and the discharge electrode, and side holes are formed in the hollow cylinder; the high-voltage power supply is connected with at least one electrode in the electrode assembly; and the water supply part is used for supplying water to the electrode assembly or forming a water film capable of continuously condensing on the surface of the electrode. According to the discharge electrode, a multi-tip array formed by a plurality of pointed cones is adopted to form a parallel point discharge unit, a local field is enhanced and is uniformly distributed, corona discharge can be stabilized under low driving voltage, and ion output of unit power consumption is improved.
Application of plasma activated water in salt tolerance and growth promotion in crop seedling stage
CN121773872 [ PDF ]
The invention relates to application of plasma activated water in salt tolerance and growth promotion of crops in a seedling stage. According to the invention, the plasma activated water technology is applied to the scene that plants cope with abiotic stress for the first time, and it is found that when plasma activated water is applied to cultivation of crop seedlings, the growth of the crop seedlings can be remarkably promoted, and the salt-tolerant growth-promoting capacity in the seedling stage is improved under salt stress. The plasma activated water is simple and convenient in preparation process and low in cost, meets the requirements of green chemistry and sustainable development, is expected to become an ideal novel salt-tolerant green preparation for promoting crop growth, and has a great market application prospect.
Plasma active water generating device
CN121377201 [ PDF ]
The invention relates to the technical field of plasma activated water production equipment, and discloses a plasma activated water generation device which comprises a material barrel and a water drainage pipe arranged at the bottom of the material barrel in a communicating mode, a first electric valve is arranged on the water drainage pipe, a water inlet pipe is arranged on the outer wall of the material barrel in a communicating mode, and a second electric valve is arranged on the water inlet pipe. The opening and closing part is mounted at the top of the material barrel; the replacing part is arranged above the material barrel; the stirring part is positioned in the material barrel; the opening and closing part comprises a lifting assembly; and the lifting assembly is mounted at the top of the material barrel. By arranging the opening and closing part, the problems that in the using process of existing plasma activated water production equipment, due to the fact that the size of an exhaust port is inconvenient to adjust, adjustment is difficult to conduct according to actual working conditions in the using process, gas mixing is prone to being insufficient or the pressure intensity in the device is unbalanced, and the service life of the device is influenced are solved. Therefore, the normal use of the device is influenced. Bimodal atmospheric pressure plasma activated water generation system and method
Plasma reactor, preparation device of plasma activated water
CN121020715 [ PDF ]
The invention relates to the technical field of plasma equipment, in particular to a plasma reactor, a plasma activated water preparation device and a plasma activated water preparation method, and the plasma activated water preparation device comprises a dielectric barrier discharge unit and a pulse discharge unit. The pulse discharge unit is arranged above the dielectric barrier discharge unit, and a mixed fluid inlet is formed in the bottom of the dielectric barrier discharge unit. And the top of the pulse discharge area is provided with a mixed fluid outlet. One is that discharge of the dielectric barrier discharge unit and pulse discharge of the pulse discharge unit are utilized to respectively provide a large amount of active oxygen and active nitrogen, and two discharge units are integrated in one plasma reactor to realize mutual dissolution promotion of the active oxygen and the active nitrogen; secondly, the multiple stages of plasma reactors are connected in series, the stages are increased according to the water demand, the plasma dosage is ensured, and plasma activated water is prepared in a non-circular circulation mode; and thirdly, the mixing time of the gas-liquid mixed fluid in the preparation device of the plasma activated water is long, so that the waste of the active particles can be prevented.
PLASMA-ACTIVATED WATER FOR ACCELERATING DIABETIC WOUND HEALING
RS20250098 [ PDF ] [ Translation ]
In patients with diabetes, wound healing is delayed and often incomplete, and is characterized by a loss of coordination between the phases that define wound healing. Our invention belongs to the field of experimental physics and biology, and relates to a product called plasma activated water used for faster healing of diabetic wounds. Plasma activated water is obtained by treating distilled water with non-equilibrium cold plasma. It contains long-lived reactive oxygen and nitrogen species that are responsible for accelerating the healing process of diabetic wounds. Plasma activated water with the characteristics defined in this patent is applied by spraying on wounds in the form of an aerosol.
Preparation method of plasma activated water based on micro-nano bubble synergistic effect
CN121005443 [ PDF ] [ Translation ]
The invention discloses a preparation method of plasma activated water based on a micro-nano bubble synergistic effect, and mainly solves the technical problems that the generation efficiency of liquid-phase active particles in the plasma activated water prepared by the existing method is low, the chemical activity of the plasma activated water is difficult to maintain and the like. The preparation method comprises the following steps: introducing micro-nano bubbles into pure water until the pure water is saturated to obtain micro-nano bubble water; then performing plasma activation treatment on the micro-nano bubble water within 3 minutes to obtaisn plasma activated water based on the micro-nano bubble synergistic effect; the gas adopted by the micro-nano bubbles is one of air, oxygen, nitrogen or helium. The chemical activity of the plasma activated water is enhanced, the maintenance time of the activity of the activated water is greatly prolonged, efficient production and long-acting storage of the plasma activated water are facilitated, and the method has great significance in biomedical application of the plasma activated water.
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